Why did the Filipino army lose the early battles around Manila?

The Filipino army faced significant disadvantages during the early battles of the Philippine-American War around Manila, which contributed to their defeat. Despite their commitment to the cause of independence, the Filipino forces were hampered by several critical factors:

• Lack of Resources and Leadership: The Filipino rebel army was short on equipment and lacked clear military strategy or tactical coordination.1
• Internal Division: Military operations were negatively impacted by jealousy and distrust between the Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo and his ablest commander, Antonio Luna.2
• Lack of Public Support: During the initial Battle of Manila, the local population failed to rise in support of the rebels, leaving the insurgent units isolated against U.S. troops.1
• U.S. Military Strength: The U.S. forces were well-supplied and commanded by experienced officers, such as General Arthur MacArthur, who effectively utilized artillery and coordinated attacks to drive the Filipino units from their positions.1

While the Filipino fighters demonstrated bravery, these structural and leadership deficiencies made it difficult to sustain their positions against the American military presence.12