Affordable Care Act cases

Affordable Care Act cases, set of three legal cases—Florida et al. v. Department of Health and Human Services et al.; National Federation of Independent Business et al. v. Kathleen Sebelius, Secretary of Health and Human Services, et al.; and Department of Health and Human Services et al. v. Florida et al.—in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 28, 2012, upheld key provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA; also called the Affordable Care Act), a comprehensive reform of U.S. health care passed by Congress and signed into law by Pres. Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The specific questions that were decided by the court included: (1) whether Congress exceeded its enumerated powers in Article I of the U.S. Constitution (including its power to lay taxes and to regulate interstate commerce) by requiring that most Americans obtain health insurance by January 1, 2014, or pay a fine (the minimum-coverage provision, also called the “individual mandate”) and (2) whether Congress unduly “coerced” state governments into increasing their contributions to Medicaid—the national health insurance program for the poor, jointly funded by the federal government and the states—by revising eligibility requirements to add up to 17 million beneficiaries to the program by 2022. The court also considered, as a preliminary matter, the question of whether it was barred from hearing challenges to the individual mandate by the Anti-Injunction Act (1867), which generally prohibits the federal courts from hearing lawsuits intended to restrain “the assessment or collection of any tax” before it has gone into effect.

For political as well as constitutional reasons, the Affordable Care Act cases were among the most significant to reach the Supreme Court in a generation. The court’s decision was expected to clarify, if not to redefine, the scope of federal regulatory power under the commerce clause, drawing comparisons to the Supreme Court rulings of the 1930s on the constitutionality of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal package of economic reforms. It was also likely to affect Obama’s bid for reelection in November 2012 by either upholding or striking down the signature legislative achievement of his first term. Indeed, the cases galvanized Obama’s conservative and libertarian opponents on one side and many of his moderate and liberal supporters on the other, the former group condemning the PPACA (and specifically the individual mandate) as emblematic of the excessive growth of federal power under his administration and the latter group defending the law as a constitutionally sound reform that would guarantee affordable health care to millions of uninsured Americans. In apparent recognition of the cases’ unusual importance and complexity, the court scheduled a total of approximately six hours of oral argument—six times the limit of one hour of argument per decision that the court had observed since 1970.

District and appellate decisions

The Affordable Care Act cases originated in a suit filed in U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Florida. In State of Florida et al. v. United States Department of Health and Human Services et al., Florida and 12 other states (later joined by 13 additional states, two individuals, and the National Federation of Independent Business [NFIB]) argued that in passing the individual mandate Congress had exceeded its power under the commerce clause to regulate interstate commerce, because the mandate amounted to a regulation of “inactivity”—i.e., the failure to purchase health insurance. The state plaintiffs additionally alleged that the PPACA’s expansion of Medicaid was an onerous financial burden that they had been forced to accept to continue receiving federal matching funds for Medicaid beneficiaries within their borders. Although state participation in Medicaid is voluntary, the plaintiffs could not realistically opt out of the program, which had become “customary and necessary for citizens throughout the United States, including the Plaintiffs’ respective states.” The Medicaid expansion thus allegedly violated the spending clause of the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1), which does not permit Congress to offer financial inducements to the states that are “so coercive as to pass the point at which pressure turns into compulsion,” as the Supreme Court ruled in South Dakota v. Dole (1987), citing the court’s decision in Steward Machine Co. v. Davis (1937).

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In his ruling, issued in January 2011, U.S. District Court Judge Roger Vinson agreed with the government that the plaintiffs’ underlying “coercion theory” was unsupported in existing case law, having been rejected in challenges to federal spending laws by “every single federal Court of Appeals.” On the constitutionality of the individual mandate, however, he agreed with the plaintiffs that the commerce clause limits the scope of Congress’s regulatory authority to “activities”; he thus rejected the government’s claims that congressional authority was not so limited and that, in any event, the failure to purchase health insurance should be understood as an activity. Finding in addition that the individual mandate was not severable from the other provisions of the PPACA (many of which, nevertheless, were unrelated to health insurance), he declared the entire law unconstitutional. In August 2011 a three-judge panel of the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals reversed (2–1) Vinson’s decision regarding severability but affirmed it regarding Medicaid and the individual mandate.