The Middle Ages, TRA-ṬāR
The Middle Ages comprise the period in European history that began with the collapse of Roman civilization in the 5th century CE and lasted until the dawn of the Renaissance in the 13th, 14th, or 15th century. This interval of time saw the development of the Gothic style of art and architecture, flying buttresses and all. It was also the era of the Crusades and of papal monarchy, and it was during this period that the idea of Europe as a distinct cultural unit emerged.
The Middle Ages Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Trauttmansdorff, Maximilian, Graf von
Maximilian, count von Trauttmansdorff was an Austrian statesman, confidant of the emperors Ferdinand II and Ferdinand......
Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope
Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope, one of the confessional writings of Lutheranism, prepared in 1537......
Tribonian
Tribonian was a legal authority and public official in the Byzantine Empire (eastern Roman Empire), who was the......
Tunisia
Tunisia, country of North Africa. Tunisia’s accessible Mediterranean Sea coastline and strategic location have......
- Introduction
- Arabic, French, Berber
- Oil, Phosphates, Tourism
- Constitution, Politics, Society
- Culture, Cuisine, Traditions
- Ancient, Roman, Arab
- French Protectorate, Colonialism, Independence
- Domestic Development, Reforms, Economy
- Jasmine Revolution, Arab Spring, Democracy
- Unity, Government, Revolution
Turkey
Turkey, also called Türkiye, country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly......
- Introduction
- The central massif
- Urbanization, Migration, Diversity
- Population, Migration, Ageing
- Constitution, Government, Politics
- Culture, Cuisine, Religion
- Marriage, Family, Customs
- Ottoman Empire, Geography, Culture
- Republic, Mustafa Kemal, 1923
- Kemalist, Policies, Reforms
- Military Coup, 1960, Politics
- Politics, 70s-90s, Reforms
- Kurdish Conflict, Ethnicity, Borders
- AKP, 21st Century, Politics
- Erdogan, AKP, Resistance
- NATO, EU, Middle East
- Russia, Regional Affairs, Erdogan
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan, landlocked country of Central Asia. It is the second largest state in Central Asia, after Kazakhstan,......
Tzeltal
Tzeltal, Mayan Indians of central Chiapas, in southeastern Mexico, most closely related culturally and linguistically......
Tzotzil
Tzotzil, Mayan Indians of central Chiapas in southeastern Mexico. Linguistically and culturally, the Tzotzil are......
Tz’utujil
Tz’utujil, Mayan Indians of the midwestern highlands of Guatemala. The Tz’utujil language is closely related to......
Ukraine
Ukraine, country located in eastern Europe, the second largest on the continent after Russia. The capital is Kyiv,......
- Introduction
- Soils, Climate, Agriculture
- Forests, Steppes, Fauna
- Ethnicity, Religion, Language
- Russian, Ukrainian, Yiddish
- Agriculture, Industry, Trade
- Resources, Power, Economy
- Economy, Banking, Currency
- Politics, Constitution, Autonomy
- Politics, Independence, Reforms
- Health, Welfare, Reforms
- Culture, Traditions, Cuisine
- Art, Music, Theater
- Folk, Choral, Instrumental
- Cultural Institutions
- Soviet Union, Independence, Revolution
- Lithuanian, Polish, Rule
- Cossacks, Steppe, Black Sea
- Autonomous Hetman, Sloboda Ukraine
- Imperial Rule, Cossacks, Hetmanate
- Habsburg Monarchy, Western Ukraine, Galicia
- Bukovina, Carpathians, Culture
- WWI, Independence, Revolution
- Interwar, Soviet Union, Independence
- Holodomor, Famine, 1932-33
- Polish Rule, Galicia, Habsburgs
- Transcarpathia, Czechoslovakia, History
- Nazi Occupation, Soviet, Genocide
- Soviet Union, Postwar, Independence
- Shelest Rule, Soviet Union, Independence
- Soviet Rule, Independence, Revolution
- Independence, Sovereignty, Reforms
- Parliamentary Democracy
- Culture, History, Politics
- Economic Struggles, Reforms, Crisis
- Kuchma, Reforms, Independence
- Orange Revolution, Yushchenko, Presidency
- Maidan, Protest, Revolution
- Crimea, Eastern Ukraine, Conflict
- Poroshenko, Administration, Reforms
- Russian Invasion, Crimea, Conflict
Ulpian
Ulpian was a Roman jurist and imperial official whose writings supplied one-third of the total content of the Byzantine......
Umayyad dynasty
Umayyad dynasty, the first great Muslim dynasty to rule the empire of the caliphate (661–750 ce), sometimes referred......
United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates, federation of seven emirates along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Abu Dhabi,......
Urban II
Urban II was the head of the Roman Catholic Church (1088–99) who developed ecclesiastical reforms begun by Pope......
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan, landlocked country in Central Asia. It lies mainly between two major rivers, the Syr Darya (ancient......
Valdemar I
Valdemar I was the king of Denmark (1157–82) who ended the Wend (Slav) threat to Danish shipping, won independence......
Valdemar II
Valdemar II was the king of Denmark (1202–41) who, between 1200 and 1219, extended the Danish Baltic empire from......
Varna, Battle of
Battle of Varna, Turkish victory over a largely Hungarian force on November 10, 1444, in what is now Bulgaria,......
vassal
vassal, in feudal society, one invested with a fief in return for services to an overlord. Some vassals did not......
Venice, Treaty of
Treaty of Venice, treaty (1201) negotiated between crusaders in the Fourth Crusade and Enrico Dandolo of Venice......
Versailles, Treaty of
Treaty of Versailles, peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by......
Vienna, Siege of
Siege of Vienna, (July 17–September 12, 1683), expedition by the Ottomans against the Habsburg Holy Roman emperor......
Vienna, Siege of
In 1529 the Ottoman Empire made a determined effort to capture Vienna, the capital of the Habsburg Austrian Empire.......
Viking
Viking, member of the Scandinavian seafaring warriors who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the 9th......
Vikings Helped Cats Conquer the World
While Vikings don’t exactly have a reputation for being cuddly, their travel companions do. Hoping to shed some......
Viracocha
Viracocha, creator deity originally worshiped by the pre-Inca inhabitants of Peru and later assimilated into the......
Vlorë proclamation
Vlorë proclamation, (Nov. 28, 1912), declaration of Albanian independence from Ottoman rule. After the Turkish......
Wala, Saint
Saint Wala ; feast day August 31) was a Frankish count, Benedictine abbot, and influential minister at the courts......
Walburga, Saint
Saint Walburga ; feast day February 25) was an abbess and missionary who, with her brothers Willibald of Eichstätt......
Wallenstein, Albrecht von
Albrecht von Wallenstein was a Bohemian soldier and statesman, commanding general of the armies of the Holy Roman......
Walīd ibn Yazīd, al-
al-Walīd ibn Yazīd was a caliph of the Umayyad dynasty who reigned from 743–744. As a young man he was of artistic......
Walīd, al-
al-Walīd was the sixth caliph (reigned 705–715) of the Arab Umayyad dynasty, who is best known for the mosques......
war
war, in the popular sense, a conflict between political groups involving hostilities of considerable duration and......
Warwick, Richard Beauchamp, 13th earl of
Richard Beauchamp, 13th earl of Warwick was a soldier and diplomatist, a knightly hero who served the English kings......
Wenceslas
Wenceslas was a German king and, as Wenceslas IV, king of Bohemia. His weak and tempestuous, though eventful, reign......
Westphalia, Peace of
Peace of Westphalia, European settlements of 1648, which brought to an end the Eighty Years’ War between Spain......
Why Was Nazi Germany Called the Third Reich?
Nazi leader Adolf Hitler imagined his dictatorial regime as the historical successor to two great German empires.......
Willem Van Ruysbroeck
Willem Van Ruysbroeck was a French Franciscan friar whose eyewitness account of the Mongol realm is generally acknowledged......
William
William was a German king from Oct. 3, 1247, elected by the papal party in Germany as antiking in opposition to......
William I
William I was a noble who made himself the mightiest in France and then changed the course of England’s history......
William IX
William IX was a medieval troubadour, count of Poitiers and duke of Aquitaine and of Gascony (1086–1127), son of......
Witigis
Witigis was an Ostrogoth soldier who became king of Italy and led his people in an unsuccessful last-ditch struggle......
Wittstock, Battle of
Battle of Wittstock, (Oct. 4, 1636), military engagement of the Thirty Years’ War, the greatest victory of the......
World Heritage site
World Heritage site, any of various areas or objects inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and......
World War I
World War I, an international conflict that in 1914–18 embroiled most of the nations of Europe along with Russia,......
- Introduction
- Nations, Resources, 1914
- Technology, 1914, Arms Race
- Eastern Front, Strategy, 1914
- Western Front, Trench Warfare, 1914
- Battle of Marne, Trench Warfare, Mobilization
- Eastern Front, 1914, Trench Warfare
- Serbian Campaign, 1914
- Naval Battles, U-Boats, Blockades
- German Colonies, Loss, WWI
- Dardanelles, Strategies, 1915-16
- Western, Eastern, 1915
- Eastern, Western, Naval
- Italy, Italian Front, 1915-16
- Battle of Verdun, Somme, Brusilov
- Battle of Jutland, Naval Warfare, WWI
- Eastern Front, 1916, Trench Warfare
- Peace Moves, U.S. Policy, Feb 1917
- Trenches, Armistice, U-Boats
- US Entry, Causes, Impact
- Caporetto, Trenches, Armistice
- Western Front, June-Dec 1917
- Air Warfare, Trench Warfare, Armistice
- Last Offensives, Allies Victory
- Armistice, Treaty, Legacy
- Balkan Front, 1918
- Vittorio Veneto, Armistice, Treaty
- Austria-Hungary, Collapse, Causes
- Armistice, Treaty, Legacy
- Casualties, Armistice, Legacy
Worms, Concordat of
Concordat of Worms, compromise arranged in 1122 between Pope Calixtus II (1119–24) and the Holy Roman emperor Henry......
Yarmouk, Battle of
After a devastating blow to the Sassanid Persians at Firaz, Muslim Arab forces under the command of Khalid ibn......
Yazīd I
Yazīd I was the second Umayyad caliph (680–683), particularly noted for his suppression of a rebellion led by Ḥusayn,......
Yemen
Yemen, country situated at the southwestern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is mostly mountainous and generally......
York plays
York plays, a cycle of 48 plays, dating from the 14th century, of unknown authorship, which were performed during......
Young Ottomans
Young Ottomans, secret Turkish nationalist organization formed in Istanbul in June 1865. A forerunner of other......
Young Turk Revolution
Young Turk Revolution, (July 3–23, 1908), revolt against the autocracy of the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II inspired......
Young Turks
Young Turks, coalition of various reform groups that led a revolutionary movement against the authoritarian regime......
Yucatec Maya
Yucatec Maya, Middle American Indians of the Yucatán Peninsula in eastern Mexico. The Yucatec were participants......
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia, former federated country that was situated in the west-central part of the Balkan Peninsula. This article......
Zacharias, Saint
Saint Zacharias ; feast day March 15) was the pope from 741 to 752. The last of the Greek popes, Zacharias was......
Zeno
Zeno was an Eastern Roman emperor whose reign (474–91) was troubled by revolts and religious dissension. Until......
Zenta, Battle of
Battle of Zenta, (September 11, 1697), decisive military victory of Austrian forces over an Ottoman army at Zenta......
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe, landlocked country of southern Africa. It shares a 125-mile (200-kilometre) border on the south with......
Zoe
Zoe was a Byzantine empress, by marriage from 1028 and in her own right from 1042. The daughter of the emperor......
Âli Paşa, Mehmed Emin
Mehmed Emin Âli Paşa was an Ottoman grand vizier (chief minister) distinguished for his westernizing reform policies.......
Çakmak, Fevzi
Fevzi Çakmak was a Turkish marshal and statesman who played a leading role in the establishment of the Turkish......
Çanak, Treaty of
Treaty of Çanak, (Jan. 5, 1809), pact signed between the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain at Çanak (now Çanakkale,......
Çeşme, Battle of
Battle of Çeşme, (July 6–7, 1770), naval clash in which a Russian fleet defeated and destroyed the Ottoman fleet......
Ögödei
Ögödei was the son and successor of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, who greatly expanded the Mongol Empire. The......
İbrahim
İbrahim was an Ottoman sultan whose unstable character made him prey to the ambitions of his ministers and relatives......
İbrahim Müteferrika
İbrahim Müteferrika was an Ottoman diplomat known for his contributions to the 18th-century reform movement in......
İbrahim Paşa
İbrahim Paşa was an Ottoman grand vizier (1523–36) who played a decisive role in diplomatic and military events......
İnönü, İsmet
İsmet İnönü was a Turkish army officer, statesman, prime minister (1923–24; 1925–37; 1961–1965), and collaborator......
Şevket Paşa, Mahmud
Mahmud Şevket Paşa was an Ottoman soldier and statesman who, in 1909, suppressed a religious uprising, forced the......
ʿAbbasid caliphate
ʿAbbasid caliphate, second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim empire of the caliphate. It overthrew the Umayyad......
ʿAbbās I
ʿAbbās I was the shah of Persia from 1588 to 1629, who strengthened the Safavid dynasty by expelling Ottoman and......
ʿAbd al-Malik
ʿAbd al-Malik was the fifth caliph (685–705 ce) of the Umayyad Arab dynasty centred in Damascus. He reorganized......
ʿAbd al-Muʾmin
ʿAbd al-Muʾmin was a Berber caliph of the Almohad dynasty (reigned 1130–63), who conquered the North African Maghrib......
ʿAlī
ʿAlī was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and fourth of the “rightly guided” (rāshidūn)......
ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ
ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ was the Arab conqueror of Egypt. A wealthy member of the Banū Sahm clan of the important tribe......
ʿAskarī, Jaʿfar al-
Jaʿfar al-ʿAskarī was an army officer and Iraqi political leader who played an important role in the Arab nationalist......
ʿUmar I
ʿUmar I was the second Muslim caliph (from 634), under whom Arab armies conquered Mesopotamia and Syria and began......
ʿUmar II
ʿUmar II was a pious and respected caliph who attempted to preserve the integrity of the Muslim Umayyad caliphate......
ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān
ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān was the third caliph to rule after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. He centralized the administration......
ʿĀʾishah
ʿĀʾishah was the third wife of the Prophet Muhammad (the founder of Islam), who played a role of some political......
Ḥaṭṭīn, Battle of
Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn, (July 4, 1187), battle in northern Palestine that marked the defeat and annihilation of the Christian......
Ṭahmāsp I
Ṭahmāsp I was the shah of Iran from 1524 whose rule was marked by continuing warfare with the Ottoman Empire and......
Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād
Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād was a Berber general who led the Muslim conquest of Spain. Mūsā ibn Nuṣayr, the Arab conqueror......