Law, Crime & Punishment, NEW-PIR
Every society draws lines between order and disorder. Explore the laws, crimes, courts, and punishments that reveal how communities define justice and respond when rules are broken.
Law, Crime & Punishment Encyclopedia Articles By Title
New South Wales Corps
New South Wales Corps, (1789â1818), British military force formed for service in the convict colony of New South......
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, legal case in which, on March 9, 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously......
New York v. Cathedral Academy
New York v. Cathedral Academy, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on December 6, 1977, ruled (6â3) that a New......
Newspaper Preservation Act
The Newspaper Preservation Act of 1970 was passed to allow antitrust exemptions for newspapers in the same geographic......
Nexum
Nexum, in very early Roman law, a type of formal contract involving the loan of money under such oppressive conditions......
Night and Fog Decree
Night and Fog Decree, secret order issued by Adolf Hitler on December 7, 1941, under which âpersons endangering......
Nineteenth Amendment
Nineteenth Amendment, amendment (1920) to the Constitution of the United States that officially extended the right......
Ninth Amendment
Ninth Amendment, amendment (1791) to the Constitution of the United States, part of the Bill of Rights, formally......
No Child Left Behind
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), U.S. federal law aimed at improving public primary and secondary schools, and thus......
Nolle prosequi
Nolle prosequi, in Anglo-American law, request by a prosecutor in a criminal action that the prosecution of the......
Nomos
Nomos, in law, the concept of law in ancient Greek philosophy. The problems of political authority and the rights......
Nonpartisan League
Nonpartisan League, in U.S. history, alliance of farmers to secure state control of marketing facilities by endorsing......
NorrisâLa Guardia Act
NorrisâLa Guardia Act, legislative act passed in 1932 that removed certain legal and judicial barriers against......
Northampton, Assize of
Assize of Northampton, (1176), group of ordinances agreed upon by King Henry II of England and the magnates in......
Northwest Ordinances
Northwest Ordinances, several ordinances enacted by the U.S. Congress for the purpose of establishing orderly and......
Notary
Notary, public official whose chief function in common-law countries is to authenticate contracts, deeds, and other......
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), an independent regulatory agency that is responsible for overseeing the civilian......
nuisance
nuisance, in law, a human activity or a physical condition that is harmful or offensive to others and gives rise......
Numbered Treaties
Numbered Treaties, (1871â1921), in Canadian history, a series of 11 treaties negotiated between the dominion and......
NĂźrnberg Laws
NĂźrnberg Laws, two race-based measures depriving Jews of rights, designed by Adolf Hitler and approved by the Nazi......
O.J. Simpson trial
O.J. Simpson trial, criminal trial of former college and professional football star O.J. Simpson, who was acquitted......
Obergefell v. Hodges
Obergefell v. Hodges, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (5â4) on June 26, 2015, that state bans......
Obiter dictum
Obiter dictum, Latin phrase meaning âthat which is said in passing,â an incidental statement. Specifically, in......
Obscene Publications Act
Obscene Publications Act, in British law, either of two codifications of prohibitions against obscene literature......
obscenity
obscenity, legal concept used to characterize certain (particularly sexual) material as offensive to the public......
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), public health agency of the U.S. Department of Labor. Formed......
October Manifesto
October Manifesto, (Oct. 30 [Oct. 17, Old Style], 1905), in Russian history, document issued by the emperor Nicholas......
Ohio Gang
Ohio Gang, in U.S. history, a group of politicians who achieved high office during the presidential administration......
Oklahoma City bombing
Oklahoma City bombing, terrorist attack in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S., on April 19, 1995, in which a massive......
Old Bailey
Old Bailey, byname of the Central Criminal Court in London. It is perhaps the best known of several buildings housing......
Omar Khadr case
Omar Khadr case, the imprisonment, trial, and eventual release of Omar Khadr, a Toronto-born Canadian, captured......
omertĂ
omertĂ , code of silence and refusal to cooperate with legal authorities that forms one of the central pillars of......
Online predator
Online predator, individual who uses the Internet to commit sexual abuse or harassment, specifically of children......
ordeal
ordeal, a trial or judgment of the truth of some claim or accusation by various means based on the belief that......
Order in council
Order in council, in Great Britain, a regulation issued by the sovereign on the advice of the Privy Council; in......
Order in the Court: 10 âTrials of the Centuryâ
The spectacle of the driven prosecutor, the impassioned defense attorney, and the accused, whose fate hangs in......
Order, The
The Order, American white supremacist group known for its assassination of Jewish radio talk-show host Alan Berg......
Ordnungspolizei
Ordnungspolizei, uniformed police agencies of the Third Reich. They became an integral part of the SS and police......
organized crime
organized crime, complex of highly centralized enterprises set up for the purpose of engaging in illegal activities.......
Originalism
Originalism, in U.S. law, is a theory of legal interpretation according to which historical laws and legal documentsâthe......
Osage murders
Osage murders, series of murders of Osage tribal members in Oklahoma principally in the 1920s. Many of the killings......
Oslo and Utøya attacks of 2011
Oslo and Utøya attacks of 2011, terrorist attacks on Oslo and mass shooting on the island of Utøya in Norway on......
ostracism
ostracism, political practice in ancient Athens whereby a prominent citizen who threatened the stability of the......
Outlawry
Outlawry, act of putting a person beyond the protection of the law for his refusal to become amenable to the court......
Ownership
Ownership, the legal relation between a person (individual, group, corporation, or government) and an object. The......
Oxford, Provisions of
Provisions of Oxford, (1258), in English history, a plan of reform accepted by Henry III, in return for the promise......
Pablo Escobar: 8 Interesting Facts About the King of Cocaine
More than two decades after his death, Pablo Escobar remains as well known as he was during his heyday as the head......
Pacific Railway Acts
Pacific Railway Acts, (1862, 1864), two measures that provided federal subsidies in land and loans for the construction......
Pacific Scandal
Pacific Scandal, (1872â73), charges of corruption against Canadian prime minister Sir John A. Macdonald in awarding......
Pakistani Taliban
Pakistani Taliban, formally Tehreek-e Taliban Pakistan or Tehrik-i Taliban Pakistan (TTP), militant group that......
Pan Am flight 103
Pan Am flight 103, flight of a passenger airliner operated by Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) that exploded......
Pan Am flight 73 hijacking
Pan Am flight 73 hijacking, takeover of a Pan American World Airways jet on September 5, 1986, by hijackers linked......
Pan-American conferences
Pan-American conferences, various meetings between representatives of some or all of the independent states of......
Panama Papers
Panama Papers, documents from the database of the Panama-based law firm Mossack Fonseca that were made public in......
Panama Scandal
Panama Scandal, exposure of corruption in Franceâs Chamber of Deputies, an episode much exploited in propaganda......
Pandects
Pandects, collection of passages from the writings of Roman jurists, arranged in 50 books and subdivided into titles......
Papish v. Board of Curators of the University of Missouri
Papish v. Board of Curators of the University of Missouri, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on March......
paramilitary
paramilitary, group or organization that operates outside a countryâs formal military structure. Paramilitaries......
pardon
pardon, in law, release from guilt or remission of punishment. In criminal law the power of pardon is generally......
Paris attacks of 2015
Paris attacks of 2015, coordinated terrorist attacks that took place in Paris on the evening of November 13, 2015.......
Parlement
Parlement, the supreme court under the ancien rĂŠgime in France. It developed out of the Curia Regis (Kingâs Court),......
Parliament
Parliament, the original legislative assembly of England, Scotland, or Ireland and successively of Great Britain......
Parliament Act of 1911
Parliament Act of 1911, act passed Aug. 10, 1911, in the British Parliament which deprived the House of Lords of......
Parliament Hill attack
Parliament Hill attack, shooting that took place at Parliament and the National War Memorial in Ottawa, Ontario,......
Parliament of Canada
Parliament of Canada, the Crown, the Senate, and the House of Commons of Canada, which, according to the British......
parliamentary procedure
parliamentary procedure, the generally accepted rules, precedents, and practices commonly employed in the governance......
parole
parole, supervised conditional release from prison granted prior to the expiration of a sentence. In French parole......
Parsonâs Cause
Parsonâs Cause, dispute involving Anglican clergy in colonial Virginia, arising (1755, 1758) when laws commuted......
Patent
Patent, a government grant to an inventor of the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention,......
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA), also called the Affordable Care Act (ACA) or Obamacare,......
Patria potestas
Patria potestas, (Latin: âpower of a fatherâ), in Roman family law, power that the male head of a family exercised......
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, law passed by the U.S. Congress in 1909 in response to a call from Republican Pres. William......
Pecan Shellersâ Strike
Pecan Shellersâ Strike, labour dispute (JanuaryâMarch 1938) in which thousands of pecan shellers, most of whom......
pedophilia
pedophilia, in conventional usage, a psychosexual disorder, generally affecting adults, characterized by sexual......
peine forte et dure
peine forte et dure, in English law, punishment that was inflicted upon those who were accused of a felony and......
penal colony
penal colony, distant or overseas settlement established for punishing criminals by forced labour and isolation......
Penal Laws
Penal Laws, laws passed against Roman Catholics in Britain and Ireland after the Reformation that penalized the......
Pendleton Civil Service Act
Pendleton Civil Service Act, (Jan. 16, 1883), landmark U.S. legislation establishing the tradition and mechanism......
Pennsylvania system
Pennsylvania system, penal method based on the principle that solitary confinement fosters penitence and encourages......
penology
penology, the division of criminology that concerns itself with the philosophy and practice of society in its efforts......
Performance
Performance, in law, act of doing that which is required by a contract. The effect of successful performance is......
perjury
perjury, in law, the giving of false testimony under oath on an issue or point of inquiry regarded as material.......
Perpetuity
Perpetuity, literally, an unlimited duration. In law, it refers to a provision that is in breach of the rule against......
Persons Case
Persons Case, constitutional ruling that established the right of women to be appointed to the Senate of Canada.......
Peshawar school massacre
Peshawar school massacre, terrorist attack in which seven heavily armed fighters of the Pakistani Taliban stormed......
Petit jury
Petit jury, a group chosen from the citizens of a district to try a question of fact. Distinct from the grand jury,......
petition
petition, written instrument directed to some individual, official, legislative body, or court in order to redress......
Petition of Right
Petition of Right, (1628) petition sent by the English Parliament to King Charles I complaining of a series of......
Petrobras scandal
Petrobras scandal, Brazilian political corruption scandal beginning in 2014 that involved the indictment of dozens......
phishing
phishing, act of sending e-mail that purports to be from a reputable source, such as the recipientâs bank or credit......
phreaking
phreaking, fraudulent manipulation of telephone signaling in order to make free phone calls. Phreaking involved......
Piepoudre court
Piepoudre court, lowest and most expeditious of the courts of justice known to the ancient common law of England.......
Pierce v. Society of Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary
Pierce v. Society of Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June......
pillory
pillory, an instrument of corporal punishment consisting of a wooden post and frame fixed on a platform raised......
Pindari
Pindari, historically, an irregular horseman, plunderer, or forager attached to a Muslim army in India who was......
Pinkerton National Detective Agency
Pinkerton National Detective Agency, American independent police force that was founded in 1850 by Allan Pinkerton......
piracy
piracy, any robbery or other violent action, for private ends and without authorization by public authority, committed......
piracy
piracy, act of illegally reproducing or disseminating copyrighted material, such as computer programs, books, music,......
pirate radio
pirate radio, unlicensed radio broadcast intended for general public reception. While many pirate radio stations......
Pirate Week
Ahoy, mateys! Itâs #PirateWeek at Britannica. Grab your cutlass and your map and join us (here and on Facebook......