Law, Crime & Punishment, FOU-HEI
Every society draws lines between order and disorder. Explore the laws, crimes, courts, and punishments that reveal how communities define justice and respond when rules are broken.
Law, Crime & Punishment Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Fourth Amendment
Fourth Amendment, amendment (1791) to the Constitution of the United States, part of the Bill of Rights, that forbids......
Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools
Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on February 26, 1992, ruled (9â0)......
frankpledge
frankpledge, system in medieval England under which all but the greatest men and their households were bound together......
fraud
fraud, in law, the deliberate misrepresentation of fact for the purpose of depriving someone of a valuable possession.......
Freedom of Information Act
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), federal act signed into law by U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 4, 1966,......
Freedom of the Press Act of 1766
Freedom of the Press Act of 1766, Swedish legislation regarded as the worldâs first law supporting the freedom......
Freehold
Freehold, in English law, ownership of a substantial interest in land held for an indefinite period of time. The......
Freikorps
Freikorps, any of several private paramilitary groups that first appeared in December 1918 in the wake of Germanyâs......
From Pirate to Admiral: The Tale of Barbarossa
The island of LĂ©sbos, in the Aegean Sea, is now part of Greece, but between 1462 and 1912, it lay under Turkish......
fuero
fuero, (from Latin forum, âmarketplaceâ), in medieval Spain, a municipal franchise conferred on a community by......
Fugitive Slave Acts
Fugitive Slave Acts, in U.S. history, statutes passed by Congress in 1793 and 1850 (and repealed in 1864) that......
Fundamental Laws
Fundamental Laws, (1906), laws promulgated by the Russian emperor Nicholas II, ostensibly to carry out the governmental......
Furman v. Georgia
Furman v. Georgia, legal case in which, on June 29, 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5â4 that the death penalty......
G.I. Bill
G.I. Bill, U.S. legislation adopted in 1944 that provided various benefits to veterans of World War II. Through......
gacaca court
gacaca court, traditional system of justice in Rwanda. It was revived and modified in the aftermath of the countryâs......
gag rule
gag rule, in U.S. history, any of a series of congressional resolutions that tabled, without discussion, petitions......
gallows
gallows, the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts......
Gambino crime family
Gambino crime family, New York City-based organized crime syndicate with roots dating back to late 19th-century......
gang
gang, a group of persons, usually youths, who share a common identity and who generally engage in criminal behaviour.......
gangster
gangster, member of a criminal organization that systematically makes money from such activities as gambling, prostitution,......
garnishment
garnishment, (from Middle French garnir, meaning âto warnâ), a process by which a creditor can obtain satisfaction......
garrote
garrote, device used in strangling condemned persons. In one form it consists of an iron collar attached to a post.......
gas chamber
gas chamber, method of executing condemned prisoners by lethal gas. The gas chamber was first adopted in the U.S.......
Gavazzi Riots
Gavazzi Riots, disturbances in Quebec and Montreal in June 1853 during a lecture tour by Alessandro Gavazzi, Italian......
Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District
Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School District, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 22, 1998, ruled......
General Data Protection Regulation
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), European Union (EU) law surrounding data privacy and security, which......
Genocide
Genocide, the deliberate and systematic destruction of a group of people because of their ethnicity, nationality,......
Genovese crime family
Genovese crime family, New York-based organized crime syndicate. The Genovese crime family is considered one of......
Gentry, Charter to the
Charter to the Gentry, (1785) edict issued by the Russian empress Catherine II the Great that recognized the corps......
German Civil Code
German Civil Code, the body of codified private law that went into effect in the German empire in 1900. Though......
Germanic law
Germanic law, the law of the various Germanic peoples from the time of their initial contact with the Romans until......
gibbet
gibbet, a primitive form of gallows. It was a custom at one timeâthough not part of the legal sentenceâto hang......
Gibbons v. Ogden
Gibbons v. Ogden, (1824), U.S. Supreme Court case establishing the principle that states cannot, by legislative......
Gideon v. Wainwright
Gideon v. Wainwright, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on March 18, 1963, ruled (9â0) that states are required......
Gift
Gift, in law, a present or thing bestowed gratuitously. The term is generally restricted to mean gratuitous transfers......
Gilgo Beach Serial Killings
The Gilgo Beach serial killings were a string of murders on Long Island, New York, that began in the early 1990s......
Gill v. Whitford
Gill v. Whitford, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 18, 2018, vacated and remanded a U.S. district......
Gilles de Rais: Historyâs First Serial Killer?
Even if there had been nothing else unusual about the Breton nobleman Gilles de Rais (1404â40), his outstanding......
Gitlow v. New York
Gitlow v. New York, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 8, 1925, that the U.S. Constitutionâs......
Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District
Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on January 9, 1979, ruled......
God, Truce of
Truce of God, a measure by the medieval Roman Catholic Church to suspend warfare during certain days of the week......
Godefroy Family
Godefroy Family, distinguished French family of legal scholars and historians. Denis I Godefroy, called Denis the......
Golden Bull of 1222
Golden Bull of 1222, charter granted by King Andrew II of Hungary, which stated the basic rights and privileges......
Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV
Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV, constitution for the Holy Roman Empire promulgated in 1356 by the emperor Charles......
Gong Lum v. Rice
Gong Lum v. Rice, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on November 21, 1927, ruled (9â0) that a Mississippi school......
Good News Club v. Milford Central School
Good News Club v. Milford Central School, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 11, 2001, ruled (6â3) that,......
Goss v. Board of Education of Knoxville, Tennessee
Goss v. Board of Education of Knoxville, Tennessee, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 3, 1963, ruled......
Goss v. Lopez
Goss v. Lopez, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on January 22, 1975, ruled that, under the Fourteenth Amendmentâs......
Government of India Acts
Government of India Acts, succession of measures passed by the British Parliament between 1773 and 1935 to regulate......
Government, Instrument of
Instrument of Government, the document that established the English Protectorate and under which Great Britain......
Grand jury
Grand jury, in Anglo-American law, a group that examines accusations against persons charged with crime and, if......
Greek law
Greek law, legal systems of the ancient Greeks, of which the best known is the law of Athens. Although there never......
Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on May 27, 1968, ruled (9â0)......
grievance procedure
grievance procedure, in industrial relations, process through which disagreements between individual workers and......
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on May 25, 1964, ruled......
Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
Griggs v. Duke Power Co., case in which the U.S. Supreme Court, in a unanimous decision on March 8, 1971, established......
Griswold v. State of Connecticut
Griswold v. State of Connecticut, legal case, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court on June 7, 1965, that found in......
Griswold v. State of Connecticut Turns 50
On June 7, 1965, the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Griswold v. State of Connecticut affirmed the constitutional......
Ground Zero: Ireland and the Church Abuse Crisis
At the end of the 20th century, Roman Catholics around the world were shaken by revelations that many bishops had......
Group Areas Act
Group Areas Act, one of three acts, the first promulgated in 1950, in South Africa that provided for the division......
Guarantee
Guarantee, in law, a contract to answer for the payment of some debt, or the performance of some duty, in the event......
Guarantees, Law of
Law of Guarantees, (May 13, 1871), attempt by the Italian government to settle the question of its relationship......
Guardian
Guardian, person legally entrusted with supervision of another who is ineligible to manage his own affairsâusually......
Guardian Angels
Guardian Angels, nonprofit volunteer organization founded in New York City in 1979 by Curtis Sliwa to deter violent......
Guayaquil Conference
Guayaquil Conference, (July 26â27, 1822), meeting between SimĂłn BolĂvar and JosĂ© de San MartĂn, leaders of the......
guillotine
guillotine, instrument for inflicting capital punishment by decapitation, introduced into France in 1792. The device......
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, resolution put before the U.S. Congress by President Lyndon B. Johnson on August 5,......
Gun-Free School Zones Act
Gun-Free School Zones Act, U.S. gun control legislation signed into law by Pres. George H.W. Bush on November 29,......
Gunpowder Plot
Gunpowder Plot, the conspiracy of English Roman Catholics to blow up Parliament and King James I, his queen, and......
habitant
habitant, independent landowner who farmed properties in New France in the 17th and 18th centuries. Habitants differed......
habitual offender
habitual offender, person who frequently has been convicted of criminal behaviour and is presumed to be a danger......
hacker
hacker, information technology professionals or enthusiasts who compromise (or âhackâ) the security of computers.......
Hague Rules
Hague Rules, in maritime law, international code defining the rights and liabilities of a carrier. Introduced at......
Half-Way Covenant
Half-Way Covenant, religious-political solution adopted by 17th-century New England Congregationalists, also called......
halfway house
halfway house, any of various community-based facilities that provide access to health and educational resources......
Hamas
Hamas, militant Palestinian nationalist and Islamist movement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip that is dedicated......
Hamas: At a Glance
Hamas is a militant group in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank that was founded in 1987 at the beginning of the......
Hammer v. Dagenhart
Hammer v. Dagenhart, (1918), legal case in which the Supreme Court of the United States struck down the Keating-Owen......
Hammurabi, Code of
Code of Hammurabi, collection of Babylonian laws, developed during the reign of Hammurabi (1792â1750 bce) of the......
han
han, in Japanese history, fief controlled by a daimyo, or territorial lord, during the Tokugawa period (1603â1868).......
handcuffs
handcuffs, device for shackling the hands, used by police on prisoners under arrest. Until modern times, handcuffs......
hanging
hanging, execution or murder by strangling or breaking the neck by a suspended noose. The traditional method of......
HareâHawesâCutting Act
HareâHawesâCutting Act, (1933), the first law setting a specific date for Philippine independence from the United......
Harlem race riot of 1935
Harlem race riot of 1935, a riot that occurred in the Manhattan neighborhood of Harlem on March 19â20, 1935. It......
Harlem race riot of 1943
Harlem race riot of 1943, riot that occurred in the Manhattan neighbourhood of Harlem on August 1â2, 1943. It was......
Harlem race riot of 1964
Harlem race riot of 1964, a six-day period of rioting that started on July 18, 1964, in the Manhattan neighbourhood......
Harrah Independent School District v. Martin
Harrah Independent School District v. Martin, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on February 26, 1979, ruled......
Harris v. Forklift Systems
Harris v. Forklift Systems, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on November 9, 1993, ruled (9â0) that plaintiffs......
Harris v. Quinn
Harris v. Quinn, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court, on June 30, 2014, held (5â4) that workers who are......
Hartford Convention
Hartford Convention, (December 15, 1814âJanuary 5, 1815), in U.S. history, a secret meeting in Hartford, Connecticut,......
Hat Act
Hat Act, (1732), in U.S. colonial history, British law restricting colonial manufacture and export of hats in direct......
Hatch Act
Hatch Act, (Aug. 2, 1939; amended July 1940), measure enacted by the U.S. Congress, aimed at eliminating corrupt......
hate crime
hate crime, harassment, intimidation, or physical violence that is motivated by a bias against characteristics......
Haymarket Affair
Haymarket Affair, violent confrontation between police and labour protesters in Chicago on May 4, 1886, that became......
Hays Office
Hays Office, American organization that promulgated a moral code for films. In 1922, after a number of scandals......
health law
health law, the branch of law dealing with various aspects of health care, including the practices of caregivers......
Hearing
Hearing, in law, a trial. More specifically, a hearing is the formal examination of a cause, civil or criminal,......
Hearsay
Hearsay, in Anglo-American law, testimony that consists of what the witness has heard others say. United States......
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on Dec. 14, 1964, that in passing......
Heimwehr
Heimwehr, (German: Home Defense Force), any of the local organizations formed in various parts of Austria to expel......