Leopold von Ranke

Leopold von Ranke (born Dec. 21, 1795, Wiehe, Thuringia, Saxony [Germany]—died May 23, 1886, Berlin) was a leading German historian of the 19th century, whose scholarly method and way of teaching (he was the first to establish a historical seminar) had a great influence on Western historiography. He was ennobled (with the addition of von to his name) in 1865.

Education.

Ranke was born into a devout family of Lutheran pastors and lawyers. After attending the renowned Protestant boarding school of Schulpforta, he entered the University of Leipzig. He studied theology and the classics, concentrating on philological work and the translation and exposition of texts. This approach he later developed into a highly influential technique of philological and historical textual criticism. His predilection for history arose from his studies of the ancient writers, his indifference to the rationalistic theology still in vogue in Leipzig, and his intense interest in Luther as a historical character. But he decided in favour of history only in Frankfurt an der Oder, where he was a secondary school teacher from 1818 to 1825. Apart from the contemporary patriotic enthusiasm for German history, his decision was influenced by Barthold Georg Niebuhr’s Roman history (which inaugurated the modern scientific historical method), the historiographers of the Middle Ages, and Sir Walter Scott’s historical novels, as well as by the German Romantic poet and philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder, who regarded history as a chronicle of human progress. Yet Ranke’s strongest motive was a religious one: influenced by the philosophy of Friedrich Schelling, he sought to comprehend God’s actions in history. Attempting to establish that God’s omnipresence revealed itself in the “context of great historical events,” Ranke the historian became both priest and teacher.

Early career.

The typical features of Ranke’s historiographical work were his concern for universality and his research into particular limited periods. In 1824 he produced his maiden work, the Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1514 (History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations from 1494 to 1514), which treats the struggle waged between the French and the Habsburgs for Italy as the phase that ushered in the new era. The appended treatise, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber, in which he showed that the critical analysis of tradition is the historian’s basic task, is the more important work. As a result of these publications, he was appointed associate professor in 1825 at the University of Berlin, where he taught as full professor from 1834 to 1871. Many of the students in his famous seminars were to become prominent historians, continuing his method of research and training in other universities. In his next book, Ranke, utilizing the extremely important reports of the Venetian ambassadors, dealt with the rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and Spain in the Mediterranean (Fürsten und Völker von Süd-Europa im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert); from 1834 to 1836, he published Die römischen Päpste, ihre Kirche und ihr Staat im sechzehnten und siebzehnten Jahrhundert (changed to Die römischen Päpste in den letzen vier Jahrhunderten in later editions)—a book that ranks even today as a masterpiece of narrative history. Rising above religious partisanship, Ranke in this work depicts the papacy not just as an ecclesiastical institution but above all as a worldly power.

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Before this work appeared, Ranke the historian had been drawn briefly into contemporary history and politics. A disillusioning experience, it produced, however, a few short writings in which he expressed his scholarly and political convictions more directly than in his major works. Disregarding his real talents and misjudging the contemporaneous political dissensions, which in 1830 were intensified by the liberal July revolution in France, he undertook to edit a periodical defending Prussian policy and its rejection of liberal and democratic thinking. Only two volumes of the Historisch-politische Zeitschrift were published from 1832 to 1836, most of the articles being written by Ranke himself. While he tried to explain the conflicts of the times from a historical—and for him that meant nonpartisan—viewpoint, in essence he sought to prove that the French revolutionary development could not and should not be repeated in Germany. Ranke believed that history evolves in the separate development of individual men, peoples, and states, which together constitute the process of culture. The history of Europe from the late 15th century onward—in which each people, though sharing one cultural tradition, was free to develop its own concept of the state—seemed to him to confirm his thesis. Ranke dismissed abstract, universally valid principles as requirements for the establishment of social and national order; he felt that social and political principles must vary according to the characteristics of different peoples. To him the individual entities of greatest historical importance were states, the “spiritual entities, original creations of the human mind—even ‘thoughts of God.’ ” Their essential task was to evolve independently and, in the process, to create institutions and constitutions adapted to their times.

In this respect Ranke’s thinking is related to the philosopher G.W.F. Hegel’s theory that what is real is also rational; yet, in Ranke’s view, it is not reason that justifies what is real but historical continuity. This continuity is the prerequisite for the development of a culture and also for understanding historical reality. Hence, it is the historian’s duty to understand the essence of “historicism”: that history determines each event but does not justify it. In practice, however, Ranke endorsed the social and political order of his time—the European system of states, the German Federation with its numerous monarchies, and Prussia before the 1848 revolution, with its powerful monarchy and bureaucracy, its highly developed educational system, and its rejection of liberal and democratic trends—as resulting from the European cultural process, a process that, according to him, would be demolished by democratic revolution.

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