spitting cobra
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What is a spitting cobra?
A spitting cobra is any of several species of cobras that can eject venom from their fangs as a defense mechanism. While all spitting cobras are members of the Elapidae family, not all are members of the Naja genus (true cobras). The ringhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) is also considered a spitting cobra.
These snakes do not actually spit; instead, they squeeze muscles on their venom glands to spray venom towards a target up to 3 meters (10 feet) away. They aim for the face, especially the eyes, to cause intense pain and damage to the eyes, potentially leading to blindness. Immediate and thorough washing of the eyes can increase the chances of recovering eyesight.
Spitting cobras are found in Africa and Asia. Most are categorized as species of least concern, but the Indochinese and Mandalay spitting cobras are listed as vulnerable, and the Philippine cobra is near threatened. Habitat loss is the primary threat to spitting cobras, bringing them into closer contact with humans.
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Where are spitting cobras found in the world?
Spitting cobras are found in Asia and Africa and belong to the Elapidae family. Within this family, not all are of the Naja genus (true cobras), and the ringhals is also considered a spitting cobra.
African Spitting Cobras
- Ashe's spitting cobra Eastern Africa
- Black-necked spitting cobra Sub-Saharan Africa, mainly savanna and semi-desert regions
- Mali cobra West Africa
- Mozambique spitting cobra Southern and southeastern Africa, primarily Mozambique
- Nubian spitting cobra North Africa, including parts of the Nile valley
- Red spitting cobra East Africa
- Zebra spitting cobra Namibia, Angola
- Black spitting cobra dry regions of Southern Africa
Asian Spitting Cobras
- Indochinese spitting cobra Southeast Asia
- Javan spitting cobra Java and nearby islands of Indonesia
- Mandalay spitting cobra Myanmar
- Philippine cobra Northern Philippines (Luzon islands)
- Samar cobra Southern Philippines (Visayas and Mindanao islands)
- Equatorial spitting cobra Indonesian islands and Southeast Asia
The ringhals is found in South Africa, Eswatini, and Lesotho. Some monocled cobras in South and Southeast Asia can spit venom. Habitat loss is a primary threat to spitting cobras.
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How does a spitting cobra defend itself?
When faced with a threat, spitting cobras employ a unique defensive mechanism: ejecting venom from their fangs. They can accurately spray venom as far as 3 meters (10 feet), targeting the face and eyes of the threatening animal.
This venom induces intense pain and can damage the ocular membranes and cornea, potentially causing permanent blindness. The venom contains a high proportion of the toxin phospholipase-A2, which maximizes pain and neutralizes the threat. While spitting cobras typically raise their heads in a characteristic cobra posture before an attack, they can eject venom from any position. Researchers believe that this spitting adaptation specifically evolved to deter attacks.
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What is in the venom that spitting cobras spit?
The venom that spitting cobras eject contains a high proportion of the toxin phospholipase-A2, which works with other toxins in the venom to maximize pain. This venom is a defensive mechanism, and the snake aims for the face, especially the eyes, causing immense pain and damage. If the venom is not promptly washed away, temporary or even permanent blindness can occur.
Researchers believe spitting cobras adapted to eject venom to deter attacks from humans. The venom's pain-causing toxins also play a key role in researching painkilling drugs.
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How does spitting venom help cobras survive in the wild?
Spitting venom is a defensive mechanism that helps spitting cobras survive in the wild. Cobras eject venom from their fangs by squeezing muscles on their venom glands, and can spray venom as far as 3 meters (10 feet). They aim for the face, especially the eyes, of a threatening animal. The venom induces intense pain and can damage the ocular membranes and cornea, potentially causing temporary or permanent blindness if not washed away quickly. The venom contains a higher proportion of the toxin phospholipase-A2, which maximizes pain and neutralizes the threat.
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Are all cobras able to spit venom, or is it special to certain species?
Not all cobras spit venom; this ability is specific to certain species within the cobra group. Cobras that spit venom are broadly classified into African spitting cobras and Asian spitting cobras, both of which are included in the genus Naja, and the ringhals (Hemachatus haemachatus).
When threatened, spitting cobras can eject venom from their fangs, as far as 3 meters (10 feet), aiming for the face and eyes of the threatening animal. This defensive mechanism can cause intense pain, damage ocular membranes and the cornea, and potentially cause blindness if the eyes are not washed immediately. They eject venom by squeezing muscles on their venom glands.
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spitting cobra, one of several species of cobras that, when threatened, can shoot or eject venom directly from their fangs. Spitting cobras typically spray venom in self-defense. All spitting cobras belong to the Elapidae family, but not all spitting cobras belong to the Naja genus (true cobras) within this family. The ringhals (also rinkhals) of the monotypic genus Hemachatus is also referred to as a spitting cobra. Spitting cobras are found in Asia and Africa.
Venom delivery
Spitting cobras, like other snakes, can also deliver venom to their prey through biting. Their prey includes small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, eggs, and birds. They have earned their common name because of their ability to shoot or eject venom from their fangs. This method of venom delivery is typically employed when the snake is faced with a threat. The spitting cobra, depending on the particular species, can spray venom as far as 3 meters (10 feet). The venom is aimed at the face, specifically the eyes of the threatening animal, and can induce intense pain while damaging the ocular membranes and cornea. The venom can also cause blindness, in some cases permanent. If a person is attacked by a spitting cobra, immediately washing one’s eyes for several minutes can increase the chances of recovering eyesight. The venom typically causes no damage to unbroken skin, but blistering has been observed in some cases. Although spitting cobras typically raise their heads in the characteristic cobra posture prior to attack, they can eject venom from any position.
Spitting cobras do not technically “spit” venom but squeeze the muscles on their venom glands to eject a spray of venom toward their victim. Researchers believe that this is a defensive mechanism. The snake aims the venom at the victim’s face, especially the eyes, causing immense pain and damage. What’s more, these snakes are also capable of delivering venom through their bite, much like other snakes.
Most spitting cobras do not, technically, “spit” their venom. As a snake is ready to release the venom from its fangs, it squeezes the muscles on its venom glands to blow the venom toward its victim. Using high-speed imagery, researchers have shown that spitting cobras rotate their head from side to side when spraying venom, thus increasing the odds of hitting the eyes of their target.
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Spitting cobra venom has been found to have a higher proportion of the toxin phospholipase-A2, which works with other toxins in the venom to maximize pain and thus neutralize the threat to the snake. Some researchers have suggested that the adaptation of these snakes to “spit” venom came about specifically to deter attacks from humans.
Species, range, and conservation status
Spitting cobras are broadly classified into three categories. The first two categories—the African spitting cobra and the Asian spitting cobra— are included in the genus Naja. The ringhals (Hemachatus haemachatus), or ring-necked spitting cobra, the sole member of the genus Hemachatus, forms the third category, though the potentially extinct Hemachatus nyangensis was confirmed as another species of ringhals, based on genetic studies done on a specimen collected in 1982. This last snake is believed to be endemic to the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe, though no specimen has been spotted in the wild for several decades.
The table provides a list of some spitting cobras in the Naja genus. Most of these snakes are listed as species of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources’s Red List of Threatened Species; however, the Indochinese and Mandalay spitting cobras are listed as vulnerable, and the Philippine cobra is near threatened.
| snake name | species | range | characteristics | IUCN Red List category |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ashe’s spitting cobra | Naja ashei | Eastern Africa | at 1.3 to 2.0 meters long (4 to 6.5 feet), the largest species of spitting cobra | least concern |
| Mali cobra, also called the Katian spitting cobra | Naja katiensis | West Africa | a brown snake; juveniles are diurnal, but adults are active by day as well as night | least concern |
| Mozambique spitting cobra | Naja mossambica | Southern and southeastern Africa, primarily Mozambique | temperamental snake known for its potent venom; has bars across the neck | least concern |
| zebra spitting cobra | Naja nigricincta nigricincta | Namibia, Angola | zebra-like white or yellow stripes on a black or brown body; a shy snake | least concern |
| black spitting cobra | Naja nigricincta woodi | dry regions of Southern Africa | juveniles are gray-bodied but turn solid black as adults; bites are rare | least concern |
| black-necked spitting cobra | Naja nigricollis | sub-Saharan Africa, primarily savanna and semi-desert regions | a moderate-size snake; color varies across regions | least concern |
| Nubian spitting cobra | Naja nubiae | scattered distribution in North Africa, including parts of the Nile valley | brownish-gray with a dark ring around the neck; relatively smaller in size compared with other spitting cobras | least concern |
| red spitting cobra | Naja pallida | East Africa | bright red but some may be yellow; this relatively small species exhibits cannibalism | least concern |
| Mandalay spitting cobra | Naja mandalayensis | Myanmar | known to charge toward threats; measures about 1.2 meters (3.9 feet) in length; has a yellow-brown body with dark speckles | vulnerable |
| Philippine cobra | Naja philippinensis | Northern Philippines (Luzon islands) | stocky brown snake of medium length; known for its potent neurotoxic venom | near threatened |
| Samar cobra | Naja samarensis | Southern Philippines (Visayas and Mindanao islands) | varied coloring, often seen with yellow markings | least concern |
| Indochinese spitting cobra | Naja siamensis | Southeast Asia | medium-sized and relatively slender gray to black cobra with prominent white spots or stripes; it spits a mist of venom rather than a stream | vulnerable |
| Javan spitting cobra | Naja sputatrix | Java and nearby islands of Indonesia | uniform yellowish-brown or black | least concern |
| equatorial spitting cobra | Naja sumatrana | Indonesian islands and Southeast Asia | medium-size snake, with a brown or black coloration depending on range | least concern |
The ringhals is found in shrubland and grassland regions of South Africa, Eswatini, and Lesotho and is listed as a species of least concern by the IUCN, though its population is believed to be on the decline. It is also called the ring-necked spitting cobra because of a prominent band on its neck, in contrast to a mostly black body. It is distinguished from spitting cobras of the Naja genus by its keeled scales, the absence of solid teeth on its upper jaw, and its ovoviviparity (the eggs remain inside the mother, and live young are born). It is also known to fake death by rolling on its back with its mouth agape when threatened.
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Some populations of the monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia), or Indian spitting cobra, have also surprised herpetologists with the ability to spit venom, though at a much smaller angle as compared with other spitting cobras. These snakes are found in South Asia and Southeast Asia.
All species of spitting cobras are primarily threatened by habitat loss, which brings them into closer contact with human settlements, leading to accidental deaths.
Use in research
As with other venomous snakes, spitting cobra venom is collected for the production of antivenom that is vital to the timely treatment of snakebite victims. But these snakes’ ability to eject venom at a distance makes it harder to collect compared with the collection of venom from other more aggressive snakes. Protective shields covering the head and eyes are used when dealing with these snakes. Because of the higher presence of pain-causing toxins, spitting cobra venom also plays a key role when researching painkilling drugs.