womanism

womanism, feminist intellectual framework that focuses on the conditions and concerns of women of color, especially Black women. Womanists work to address injustices that have not been generally recognized within mainstream feminism. The term womanist was coined by the American author Alice Walker in her 1981 short story collection You Can’t Keep a Good Woman Down. Walker later expounded on the notion of womanism in her essay collection In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose (1983).

Walker’s introduction of the term womanism came at a pivotal time for the feminist movement, which had begun to fracture under criticisms of its effective exclusion and alienation of both women of color and working-class women. As a movement, womanism offered a way to expand the horizons of feminism by taking into account race and socioeconomic class as well as gender.

Although Walker characterized womanism as being universalist or humanist, subsequent Black feminist authors and scholars have deviated from this conception. Womanism is currently understood as an effort to draw attention to the unique experiences of women of color and to make manifest the various ways in which feminism and its later waves, or redirections, have struggled to understand intersectionality (i.e., the interaction and cumulative effects of multiple forms of discrimination) and to fully address all the facets of oppression in modern society.

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Origins of womanism

Walker begins her 1983 essay collection, In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose, with a numbered series of definitions and brief characterizations of womanist, the first of which is the following:

FROM WOMANISH. (Opp. of “girlish,” i.e., frivolous, irresponsible, not serious.) A black feminist or feminist of color. From the black folk expression of mothers to female children, “You acting womanish,” i.e., like a woman. Usually referring to outrageous, audacious, courageous or willful behavior. Wanting to know more and in greater depth than is considered “good” for one. Interested in grown-up doings. Acting grown up. Being grown up. Interchangeable with another black folk expression: “You trying to be grown.” Responsible. In charge. Serious.

When Walker was asked about the origins of the term womanism in a 1984 New York Times interview, she responded, “I just like to have words that describe things correctly. Now to me, ‘black feminist’ does not do that. I need a word that is organic, that really comes out of the culture, that really expresses the spirit that we see in black women. And it’s just…womanish.”

One of Walker’s characterizations of womanist states that “womanist is to feminist as purple [is] to lavender,” suggesting that the term is not intended to designate a branch of feminism but rather a broader movement capable of addressing the complexities of intersectional systems of oppression. Feminist scholars argue that this understanding is intended to encompass the wider array of experiences of women of color, who have often felt neglected or even ostracized by the mainstream feminist movement.

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In 1993 the African American author and academic Clenora Hudson-Weems published a book, Africana Womanism: Reclaiming Ourselves, in which she argued that womanism should sever ties with white, Western feminist movements and embrace an Afrocentric perspective. Hudson-Weems sought to create a theoretical framework that placed the concerns of families and communities of African descent at the heart of womanism.

This nationalist focus was a driving force behind womanism in the late 1990s and early 2000s, but the influence of Afrocentrism later waned under the pressure of criticism that it excluded the experiences of other feminists and women of color (see below Criticisms of womanism).

Womanism and feminism

Historically, the first wave of feminism, which continued from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, focused on the legal rights of women but in practice ignored the concerns of women of color. Indeed, many first-wave feminists viewed the injustices faced by Black women as an unworthy distraction from the effort to gain gender equality.

During and after the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and ’60s, the second wave of feminism emphasized the “sisterhood” of its members and insisted on their mutual solidarity to achieve its goals. This emphasis on a color-blind approach effectively isolated Black and Chicana feminists in the 1970s and ’80s and eventually contributed to the emergence of womanism. A third wave of feminism from the mid-1990s consciously addressed issues of social justice, including racism and classism, in addition to sexism. Despite its expanded perspective and more inclusive activism, feminism continued to be faulted by womanists for not fully appreciating the importance of intersectionality and for remaining subtly focused on the experiences of white middle-class (or non-working-class) women. Feminists in some less developed countries, particularly in Latin America and Africa, have taken a similar view of Western feminism, in part because white feminists in those countries tend to be associated with colonialism.

Criticisms of womanism

At the forefront of most critiques of womanism is the claim that the framework serves to divide those who seek gender equality, thus undermining their solidarity and reducing the overall effectiveness of the feminist movement. Womanism has also been faulted for allegedly being heteronormative: womanists’ emphasis on Afrocentrism and African nationalism, according to this view, has ignored the interests of queer women of color and effectively undermined the rights of many members of the LGBTQ community. In light of such criticisms, and in recognition of the goals of the apparent fourth wave of feminism from the early 2010s—which focused on sexual harassment, body shaming, and rape culture, among other issues—some feminists have sought to develop womanism and intersectionality as a theoretical framework for understanding a broader range of social justice issues, including those related to gender identity and climate change.