history of China

Introduction
Prehistory in China
- Archaeology in China
- Early humans
- Neolithic Period
  - Climate and environment
  - Food production
  - Major cultures and sites
    - Incipient Neolithic
    - 6th millennium bce
    - 5th millennium bce
    - 4th and 3rd millennia bce
    - Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic
  - Religious beliefs and social organization
The first historical dynasty: the Shang
- The advent of bronze casting
- The Shang dynasty
  - Royal burials
  - The chariot
  - Art
  - Late Shang divination and religion
  - State and society
The Zhou and Qin dynasties
- The history of the Zhou (1046–256 bce)
  - Zhou and Shang
  - The Zhou feudal system
- Social, political, and cultural changes
  - The decline of feudalism
  - Urbanization and assimilation
  - The rise of monarchy
  - Economic development
  - Cultural change
- The Qin empire (221–207 bce)
  - The Qin state
  - Struggle for power
  - The empire
The Han dynasty
- Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors
  - Xi (Western) Han
    - Prelude to the Han
    - The imperial succession
    - From Wudi to Yuandi
    - From Chengdi to Wang Mang
  - Dong (Eastern) Han
- The administration of the Han empire
  - The structure of government
    - The civil service
    - Provincial government
    - The armed forces
  - The practice of government
- Relations with other peoples
- Cultural developments
The Six Dynasties
- Political developments
  - The division of China
    - Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 ce)
    - The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 ce)
  - The era of foreign invasions and rule
    - The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)
    - The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)
- Intellectual and religious trends
  - Confucianism and philosophical Daoism
  - Daoism
  - Buddhism
The Sui dynasty
- Wendi’s institutional reforms
- Integration of the south
- Foreign affairs under Yangdi
The Tang dynasty
- Early Tang (618–626)
  - Administration of the state
  - Fiscal and legal system
- The period of Tang power (626–755)
  - The “era of good government”
  - Rise of the empress Wuhou
  - Prosperity and progress
  - Military reorganization
- Late Tang (755–907)
  - Provincial separatism
  - The struggle for central authority
- Cultural developments
  - The influence of Buddhism
  - Trends in the arts
- Social change
  - Decline of the aristocracy
  - Population movements
  - Growth of the economy
The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms
- The Wudai (Five Dynasties)
- The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)
The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen
- The Tangut
- The Khitan
- The Juchen
The Song dynasty
- Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)
  - Unification
  - Consolidation
  - Reforms
  - Decline and fall
- Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)
  - Survival and consolidation
  - Relations with the Juchen
  - The court’s relations with the bureaucracy
  - The chief councillors
  - The bureaucratic style
  - The clerical staff
  - The rise of neo-Confucianism
  - Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song
- Song culture
The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty
- The Mongol conquest of China
  - Invasion of the Jin state
  - Invasion of the Song state
- China under the Mongols
  - Mongol government and administration
    - Early Mongol rule
    - Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors
    - Economy
  - Religious and intellectual life
    - Daoism
    - Buddhism
    - Foreign religions
    - Confucianism
    - Literature
    - The arts
  - Yuan China and the West
  - The end of Mongol rule
The Ming dynasty
- Political history
  - The dynasty’s founder
  - The dynastic succession
- Government and administration
  - Local government
  - Central government
  - Later innovations
- Foreign relations
- Economic policy and developments
  - Population
  - Agriculture
  - Taxation
  - Coinage
- Culture
  - Philosophy and religion
  - Fine arts
  - Literature and scholarship
The early Qing dynasty
- The rise of the Manchu
- The Qing empire
  - Political institutions
  - Foreign relations
  - Economic development
- Qing society
  - Social organization
  - State and society
  - Trends in the early Qing
Late Qing
- Western challenge, 1839–60
  - The first Opium War and its aftermath
  - The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)
- Popular uprising
  - The Taiping Rebellion
  - The Nian Rebellion
  - Muslim rebellions
  - Effects of the rebellions
- The Self-Strengthening Movement
  - Foreign relations in the 1860s
  - Industrialization for “self-strengthening”
- Changes in outlying areas
  - East Turkistan
  - Tibet and Nepal
  - Myanmar (Burma)
  - Vietnam
  - Japan and the Ryukyu Islands
  - Korea and the Sino-Japanese War
- Reform and upheaval
  - The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898
  - The Boxer Rebellion
- Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty
  - Sun Yat-sen and the United League
  - Constitutional movements after 1905
  - The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)
The early republican period
- The development of the republic (1912–20)
  - Early power struggles
  - China in World War I
    - Japanese gains
    - Yuan’s attempts to become emperor
    - Conflict over entry into the war
    - Formation of a rival southern government
    - Wartime changes
  - Intellectual movements
    - An intellectual revolution
    - Riots and protests
- The interwar years (1920–37)
  - Beginnings of a national revolution
    - The Nationalist Party
    - The Chinese Communist Party
    - Communist-Nationalist cooperation
  - Reactions to warlords and foreigners
    - Militarism in China
    - The foreign presence
    - Reorganization of the KMT
  - Struggles within the two-party coalition
    - Clashes with foreigners
    - KMT opposition to radicals
    - The Northern Expedition
    - Expulsion of communists from the KMT
  - The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937
    - Japanese aggression
    - War between Nationalists and communists
    - The United Front against Japan
The late republican period
- The war against Japan (1937–45)
  - The Sino-Japanese War
    - Phase one
    - Phase two: stalemate and stagnation
    - Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict
  - The international alliance against Japan
    - U.S. aid to China
    - Conflicts within the international alliance
    - Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)
    - Nationalist deterioration
    - Communist growth
    - Efforts to prevent civil war
- Civil war (1945–49)
  - A race for territory
    - Attempts to end the war
    - Resumption of fighting
  - The tide begins to shift
    - A land revolution
    - The decisive year, 1948
  - Communist victory
Establishment of the People’s Republic
- Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52
- The transition to socialism, 1953–57
  - Rural collectivization
  - Urban socialist changes
  - Political developments
  - Foreign policy
- New directions in national policy, 1958–61
- Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65
The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76
- Attacks on cultural figures
- Attacks on party members
- Seizure of power
- The end of the radical period
- Social changes
- Struggle for the premiership
- Consequences of the Cultural Revolution
China after the death of Mao
- Domestic developments
  - Readjustment and recovery
  - Economic policy changes
  - Political developments
  - Educational and cultural policy changes
  - COVID-19 outbreak
  - Allegations of human rights abuses
- International relations
- Relations with Taiwan

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images, Videos & Interactives

Political map of China labeled in Pinyin, showing provincial-level divisions including provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, and special administrative regions. Major cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Lhasa are marked, along with neighboring countries and key bodies of water like the Yellow Sea and East China Sea. Disputed and controlled boundaries with India, Pakistan, and Bhutan are indicated with dashed and dotted lines. An inset map shows China's location within Asia.

Principal sites of prehistoric and Shang China

Neolithic Banshan pottery: funerary urn

Neolithic Longshan pottery: stem cup

Shang dynasty: bronze jia

Shang dynasty: goblet

Shang dynasty: oracle bone inscriptions

Large bronze jian water basin from 5th century BCE China, featuring animal-head ring handles and intricate bands of serpentine and dragon designs.

history of China: References & Edit History

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Albert Feuerwerker
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Cho-yun Hsu
Jack L. Dull
C. Martin Wilbur
David N. Keightley
Charles O. Hucker
Ernest P. Young
Evelyn S. Rawski
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Chusei Suzuki
James T.C. Liu
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Article History

Type	Description	Contributor	Date
	Invalidated site: Columbia University - Asia for Educators - CHINA?Timeline of Historical Periods.	Grace Young	Nov 07, 2026
	Media replaced.	Mindy Johnston	Sep 29, 2026
	Link added.	Ethan Teekah	Sep 14, 2026
	Media updated.	Mindy Johnston	Aug 19, 2026
	Add new Web site: ABC Listen - Overnights - History of China.	Gloria Lotha	Jan 02, 2026
	Add new Web site: World History Encyclopedia - Ancient China.	Grace Young	Aug 29, 2025
	Links added.	Ethan Teekah	Apr 24, 2025
	Add new Web site: Scholars at HARVARD - Early China in Eurasian History (PDF).	Yamini Chauhan	Jan 13, 2025
	Add new Web site: Khan Academy - Overview of Chinese history 1911 - 1949.	Emily Rodriguez	Nov 18, 2024
	Add new Web site: CORE - Building the Chronology of Early Chinese History.	Aakanksha Gaur	Aug 02, 2024
	Add new Web site: Columbia University - Asia for Educators - CHINA?Timeline of Historical Periods.	Grace Young	Jun 21, 2024
	Add new Web site: The History Files - An Introduction to China.	Gloria Lotha	Mar 30, 2024
	New article added.	Chinatsu Tsuji	Feb 06, 2024