Smithsonian Institution

Smithsonian Institution, complex based in Washington, D.C., that includes 19 museums, the National Zoo, and 14 research and education centers. Often called the “nation’s attic,” the institution is the home to an extensive collection of objects reflecting the country’s history. This includes astronaut Neil Armstrong’s Apollo 11 (1969) spacesuit in the National Air and Space Museum and abolitionist Harriet Tubman’s hymnal in the National Museum of African American History and Culture. Because of the Smithson endowment, admission to its museums is free, except for the Cooper Hewitt in New York City.

The Smithsonian’s origins

English scientist James Smithson, who died in 1829 without having visited the United States, had stipulated in his will that his estate be used to create “at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge.” The U.S. government was notified of the bequest in 1836 and by 1838, $508,318.46 was transferred.

In Washington, there was considerable disagreement over how the money should be used. Conceptualized as a university during early discussions, the institution ultimately established by a congressional act in 1846 was a hybrid of later ideas for a research center, an observatory, a library, and a museum.

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The cornerstone for the Smithsonian Institution Building was laid in 1847 on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The building, known as the Castle, was inspired by Norman architecture and designed by James Renwick. It was completed in 1855. Smithson’s remains were reburied in the Castle in 1903.

Smithsonian’s growth

The Smithsonian began to expand within the 19th century, opening a science center in 1881 and an observatory in 1890. The National Zoological Park opened in 1891 and was designed by leading landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted in Rock Creek Park in northwest Washington, D.C.

The 20th century saw accelerated growth of the museums and their collections. In 1912 first lady Helen Taft donated her inaugural gown to the Smithsonian, which ultimately led to one of the institution’s most popular exhibitions, “The First Ladies.” Displayed at the National Museum of American History, the exhibit features garments and accessories worn by first ladies including Frances Cleveland, Jacqueline Kennedy, and Michelle Obama. In 1928 aviator Charles Lindbergh donated the Spirit of St. Louis, the plane used on his solo transatlantic flight, and in 1958 the magnificent 45.5-carat blue Hope diamond went on display. In 1972 the first pair of giant pandas were gifted from China, joining the National Zoo.

The Smithsonian also maintains significant ethnographic and natural history collections, among them John Wesley Powell’s record of his research on Native Americans in Colorado; a diverse array of more than 4 million fossils; and the National Herbarium, which preserves 4.5 million plant specimens. The institute also cares for pop-culture esoterica, such as the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in the film The Wizard of Oz (1939). Slightly more than one percent of these items are on display; most are in storage or research areas of the various museums or in a facility in Maryland.

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The number of museums as part of the complex also grew in the 20th century with the addition of an American History Museum (1964), the Air and Space Museum (1976), the Renwick Gallery (1972), and Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (1974), among others. In 1970 the institution began publishing the Smithsonian magazine.

As the Smithsonian entered its third century, it opened new museums dedicated to the history and culture of specific populations including the National Museum of the American Indian in 2004 and the National Museum of the African American History and Culture in 2016. The institution also opened (2003) a second facility for the Air and Space Museum, called the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D.C.

Governance of the Smithsonian

The Smithsonian has a public-private partnership with the U.S. government. It is governed by a Board of Regents composed of the U.S. vice president, the chief justice of the United States, three senators, three representatives, and nine U.S. citizens. The representatives are appointed by the speaker of the House of Representatives; the senators by the president pro tempore of the Senate (pro tempore is a Latin term meaning “for the time being,” so the president pro tempore of the Senate is a senator who presides over the chamber in the absence of the vice president); and the nine citizens by the board. The citizens are then approved by joint resolution of Congress.

The Board of Regents administers the Smithsonian’s budget of more than $1 billion. According to the Smithsonian’s 2023 annual report, more than half of its funding comes from the federal government, with the rest coming from sources that include contributions, grants, and endowments. The board meets about four times a year and establishes major policies, which are overseen by the Secretary. Since 2019 the Smithsonian’s Secretary has been Lonnie G. Bunch III, the first Black person and the first historian to hold that position.

The Smithsonian’s combination of institutional autonomy and dependence on federal funding became a source of tension during Pres. Donald Trump’s second term as he repeatedly sought to reshape the museums’ presentation of American history. He began in March 2025 by issuing an executive order directing Vice Pres. J.D. Vance, who is on the Board of Regents, to work with Congress to prevent the funding of exhibitions or programs that “divide Americans by race” and to remove “improper, divisive, or anti-American ideology” from Smithsonian institutions. In subsequent months, Trump claimed authority to fire National Portrait Gallery director Kim Sajet. Although the Smithsonian stated that personnel decisions rested with the Secretary, subject to oversight by the Board of Regents, Sajet stepped down soon afterward. Her resignation, together with the Smithsonian’s earlier decision to dismantle its diversity office and the National Museum of American History’s later revision of a placard describing Trump’s two impeachments, raised concerns about the independence of the institution from political interference.

Pressure from the Trump administration to highlight national achievement and “American exceptionalism” intensified in 2026. On the Fourth of July, the White House Domestic Policy Council released “Saving America’s Story,” a 162-page report accusing the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History of “extreme political activism” and of emphasizing social conflict at the expense of the country’s founders and achievements. Museum director Anthea Hartig rejected that characterization while testifying before a House Oversight subcommittee, defending the museum’s standards of scholarship, accuracy, independence, and nonpartisanship. The next month, the administration proposed reducing the Smithsonian’s federal funding for fiscal year 2027 by about 11 percent and directed federal agencies to use financial and regulatory authority to encourage reforms.

The museums of the Smithsonian

The Smithsonian is home to 19 museums, including:

• Anacostia Community Museum, Washington, D.C.
• Arts and Industries Building, Washington, D.C.
• Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, New York City
• Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.
• National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.
• National Air and Space Museum, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Chantilly, Virginia
• National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, D.C.
• National Museum of African Art, Washington, D.C.
• National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center, Washington, D.C.
• National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C.
• National Museum of the American Indian, George Gustav Heye Center, New York City
• National Museum of Asian Art (comprising the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and the Freer Gallery of Art)
• National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
• National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.
• National Postal Museum, Washington, D.C.
• Renwick Gallery of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.
• S. Dillon Ripley Center (International Gallery), Washington, D.C.
• Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.
• Smithsonian Institution Building, the Castle (Information Center), Washington, D.C.

Two museums are in development: National Museum of the American Latino and the Smithsonian American Women’s History Museum.