Quaker

Quaker, member of the Religious Society of Friends (also called the Society of Friends, or Friends Church), a Christian movement founded in England in the mid-17th century by George Fox. Quakers believe that every person can experience the direct guidance of the Holy Spirit without outward rites or an ordained ministry. They are known for silent worship, decision-making by consensus, and a long tradition of actively working for peace and opposing war. In the first quarter of the 21st century, there were roughly 400,000 Quakers worldwide. For a more detailed discussion of the history and beliefs of Quakers, see Society of Friends.

The name Quaker originated as a term of ridicule. Fox recorded that in 1650 “Justice Bennet of Derby first called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God.” It is likely that the name was also used because many early Friends, like other religious enthusiasts, trembled in their religious meetings and showed other physical manifestations of religious emotion. Although initially derogatory, the term was eventually adopted by the Friends themselves and has long been their most common name.

Beliefs and worship

Trust in the Inner Light is the distinctive theme of Quakerism. The Light should not be confused with conscience or reason; it is, rather, that of God in everyone, which allows humans an immediate sense of God’s presence and will for them. Because of this emphasis on spiritual experience, Friends historically have rejected a formal or salaried clergy, elaborate ritual, and formal creeds. Instead their worship centers on listening for divine guidance and responding faithfully to it.

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Meetings to worship God and await God’s word are essential to Quaker faith and practice, and they are always open to anyone who wishes to come. In “unprogrammed” meetings worship takes place in silence until someone feels moved by the Spirit to speak. A Quaker meetinghouse, the traditional place of worship, characteristically lacks an altar. Some Quakers, particularly Evangelical and Pastoral Friends, hold “programmed” services with hymns, sermons, and pastoral leadership, in addition to silent worship. Despite these differences worship throughout the Quaker tradition emphasizes simplicity, reflection, and communal attentiveness to divine guidance.

Quakers are also known for their testimonies—shared ethical principles that arise from their religious convictions. These traditionally include peace, integrity, equality, simplicity, and community. Friends have long opposed war and violence, promoted honesty in business and personal life, affirmed the spiritual equality of people regardless of gender, and sought to live simply and responsibly.

Organization

Quakers have no central governing authority. Local congregations, called meetings, are largely autonomous. There is an official, the clerk, but the responsibility of the clerk is not to preside but rather to feel for a “sense of the meeting,” which draws together the thinking of the meeting to the point of action. Decisions are thus reached through consensus.

Modern Quakerism includes four major branches: Evangelical (Evangelical Friends Church International), Pastoral (Friends United Meeting), Liberal (Friends General Conference), and Conservative. These groups differ in theology and worship but share a common historical heritage in the movement founded by Fox.

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Origins and history

There were meetings of the kind later associated with the Quakers before there was a group by that name. Small groups of Seekers gathered during the political and religious upheavals of the English Civil Wars (the Puritan Revolution) against Charles I to wait upon the Lord because they despaired of spiritual help either from the established Anglican church or the existing Puritan bodies—Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and Baptists—through which most of them had already passed. Fox and other early Quaker leaders rejected the authority of established churches, insisting that every person could experience the presence and guidance of God directly. This emphasis on the Inner Light distinguished the movement from other Protestant groups and shaped both its worship and its understanding of Christian life.

The movement spread rapidly throughout England despite intense persecution. Friends were fined and imprisoned for refusing to swear oaths, pay tithes to the Church of England, or participate in military service. To escape persecution many Quakers fled to North America. Under the leadership of William Penn, Pennsylvania became the most influential Quaker colony and was widely admired for its commitment to religious toleration, attracting Quakers and other religious dissenters from across Europe. During the colony’s early decades, it was also noted for its comparatively peaceful relations with Native Americans. Rhode Island was a similarly tolerant and welcoming haven for Quakers and other religious groups.

During the 18th century Quakerism became more inward-looking with a quietist phase, emphasizing plain dress, plain speech, and strict standards of membership. In the 19th century disagreements over theology and worship led to several divisions, producing branches that differed in their understanding of Scripture, the Inner Light, and the role of pastors. Although these distinctions remain, cooperation among Quaker organizations increased during the 20th century, and the movement expanded significantly beyond Europe and North America, particularly in Africa.

Influence

Although Quakers have always represented a relatively small religious community, they have had a significant influence on public life. Their ethical convictions have inspired generations of Friends to work for social justice, education, prison reform, and humanitarian relief. Friends were among the earliest religious groups to oppose slavery as an institution, and their commitment to nonviolence has made them prominent advocates for peace and conflict resolution.

In the 20th century Quakers were active in a number of key historical moments. They actively supported women’s and Black suffrage movements in the United States and elsewhere, and many were heavily involved in the American civil rights movement. Bayard Rustin, a key adviser to Martin Luther King, Jr., and the main organizer of the March on Washington, credited his nonviolence to his Quaker roots. As pacifists Quakers were conscientious objectors in numerous military conflicts throughout the century and were especially vocal protesters of the Vietnam War. In South Africa Quakers actively opposed the apartheid regime.

Quaker organizations have provided relief to victims of war, famine, and natural disasters around the world. In recognition of this work, the American Friends Service Committee and the British Friends Service Council were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1947. Numerous scientists, educators, reformers, and public figures have also been Quakers or influenced by Quaker ideals, including abolitionist John Woolman, reformers Lucretia Mott and Alice Paul, chemist John Dalton, astronomer Arthur Eddington, and surgeon Joseph Lister.