Mayan literature

A number of important examples of early literature were written in Mayan languages. The Popol Vuh, sometimes translated as the “Book of Counsel,” written in K’iche’, is the single most important example of indigenous literature in the Americas. It contains epic tales, myths, and genealogies. It was found and first translated by the Dominican friar Francisco Ximénez about 1701 but is based on precontact sources. The Popol Vuh has been the subject of extensive scholarship, which has revealed much about the structure of Mayan ritual language and about pre-European Mayan mythology and worldview.

The Rabinal Achí, also in K’iche’, is a dance-drama that provides a rare view of precontact Mayan society. The Books of Chilam Balam (books from the towns of Chumayel, Maní, Tizimín, Kaua, Ixil, and Tusik), written in Yucatec Maya, include historical content but also deal with medicine, astrology, and prophecy. The Annals of the Cakchiquels—also known by alternative Spanish titles Anales de los Cakchiqueles, Memorial de Tecpán-Atitlán, and Memorial de Sololá—was written in Kaqchikel by Francisco Hernández Arana Xajilá in 1571 and completed by his grandson, Francisco Rojas, in 1604. It includes both historical and mythological content. Mayan literature, both colonial and modern, has received extensive attention from scholars. These studies help to elucidate not only Mayan oral literature but also folklore and oral tradition in general, ritual and religion, Lowland Mayan hieroglyphic texts and Classic Maya culture, and Mayan life and thought (both ancient and modern).

Mayan literature and ceremonial language, both modern and ancient, are characterized by paired couplets, a literary device first described in the Popol Vuh but also found across the Mayan languages, including hieroglyphic texts, and throughout Mesoamerica. It is called huehuetlatolli (ancient discourses recovered from interviews with native elders) in Nahuatl and tz’onooj in K’iche’. Paired couplets are illustrated in the following short prayer from the Popol Vuh:

at tz’aqool, at b’itool
k-oj-aw-ila’, k-oj-a-ta’
m-oj-a-tzoqoh, m-oj-a-pisk’aliij
chi-kaaj, chi uleew
u-k’u’x ka:j, u-k’u’x uleew

you shaper, you creator
see-us, hear-us
don’t-let-us-fall, don’t-abandon-us
in-heaven, on earth
heart of heaven, heart of earth

Modern Mayan texts and oral literature are not essentially different in structure or content, as seen in, for example, Gary H. Gossen’s Chamulas in the World of the Sun: Time and Space in a Maya Oral Tradition (1974), an impressive collection, translation, and analysis of genres of Chamula Tzotzil oral literature.

Nahuatl literature

There is also an extensive literature in Nahuatl. Most impressive is the Florentine Codex, titled Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (General History of the Things of New Spain), prepared during approximately the last half of the 16th century by Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún and his Aztec students. Its 2,400 pages in 12 books, with more than 2,000 illustrations drawn by native artists, provide essentially a complete ethnography of the Aztecs, with sections on the gods and ceremonies; creation, soothsayers, omens, prayers and theology, the Sun, Moon, and stars and the calendar, kings and lords, merchants, peoples, “earthly things” (animals, plants, metals, stones, cols), and the conquest of New Spain (Mexico City).

Other well-known examples of literature written in Nahuatl in the early period are Cantares Mexicanos, a collection of 91 songs or poems recorded in the 16th century; the late 16th-century Crónica Mexicayotl by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, a Nahua aristocrat; Codex Chimalpahin by 17th-century Nahua historian Domingo Francisco de San Antón Muñón Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin; Codex Chimalpopoca, with pre-European history of the Valley of Mexico, Aztec mythology, and stories of the culture hero or god Quetzalcóatl; Codex Aubin, recounting the wanderings of the Mexica (see Aztec) from mythical Aztlán to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán; and Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca (written 1545–65) by Fernando De Alva Ixtlixóchitl, the Aztec myth of the legendary Toltec and Chichimec peoples.