Modern standard Hindi evolved from the interaction of early speakers of Khari Boli with Muslim invaders from Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Central Asia, and elsewhere. As the new immigrants settled and began to adjust to the Indian social environment, their languages—which were ultimately lost—enriched Khari Boli.

Most of the Persian words that were assimilated with Hindi concerned administration, such as faujdari ‘criminal (case),’ vazir ‘minister,’ and musahib ‘courtier.’ Words such as dalil ‘argument,’ faisla ‘judgment,’ and gavahi ‘witness’ have been completely assimilated and are usually not recognized as loanwords. Persian names for items of dress and bedding (e.g., pajama, chador), cuisine (e.g., korma, kabab), cosmetics (e.g., sabun ‘soap,’ hina ‘henna’), furniture (e.g., kursi ‘chair,’ mez ‘table’), construction (e.g., divar ‘wall,’ kursi ‘plinth’), a large number of adjectives and their nominal derivatives (e.g., abad ‘inhabited’ and abadi ‘population’), and a wide range of other items and concepts are so much a part of the Hindi language that purists of the postindependence period have been unsuccessful in purging them.

While borrowing Persian and Arabic words, Hindi also borrowed phonemes, such as /f/ and /z/, though these were sometimes replaced by /ph/ and /j/. For instance, Hindi renders the word for ‘force’ as either zor or jor and the word for ‘sight’ as nazar or najar. In most cases the sounds /g/ and /x/ were replaced by /k/ and /kh/, respectively. Contact with the English language has also enriched Hindi. Many English words, such as button, pencil, petrol, and college are fully assimilated in the Hindi lexicon.

Hindi has borrowed a number of prefixes and suffixes from Persian that, when combined with indigenous roots, have created new words. Similarly, the process of hybridization with English has produced a large number of derived nominals, such as kaungresi (congress + i), Ameriki (America + i), and vaiscansalari (vice-chancellor + i), in which the base word is English and the suffix is typically Hindi. Nouns that mix contributions from English and Persian, such as table-kursi ‘tables and chairs’ and school-imarat ‘school building,’ are also found. In spoken Hindi, English-based complex verbs are used as well. For instance, one can say either aram karna or rest karna ‘to rest,’ parhai karna or study karna ‘to study,’ and bahas karna or plead karna ‘to plead.’

Syntax

In earlier Hindi the relative clause was placed either at the beginning or at the end of the main clause. For instance, one could render ‘the boy who came here yesterday is my friend’ in several ways: wo larka mera dosht hai jo kal yaha aya tha, literally ‘that boy my friend is who yesterday came here’; jo larka kal yaha aya tha, wo mera dosht hai, literally ‘which boy yesterday here came, he my friend is’; or wo larka jo kal yaha aya tha, mera dosht hai, literally ‘that boy who yesterday here came, my friend is.’ After colonization, Hindi syntax was influenced by English, though in a limited way. For instance, until the mid-19th century, Hindi had no form for indirect narration—one could formerly say Ram ne kaha, mein nahi aaoonga ‘Ram said, “I won’t come,”’ and now one can also say Ram ne kaha ki wo nahi ayega ‘Ram said that he won’t come.’

From the mid-20th century, the use of Hindi on national television increased the use of a linguistic device called code switching, in which the speaker creates sentences by combining a Hindi phrase with another in English, as in I told him that mai bimar hu ‘I told him that I am sick.’ This device differs from code mixing, in which words of different origins are mixed: usne sick leave ki application de hai ‘he has applied for sick leave.’

Standardization

In 1931 linguist Sumit Kumar Chatterjee conducted a study in Calcutta (now Kolkata) detailing the use of a lingua franca that he called Bazaar Hindustani. It had minimal grammatical forms and a simplified basic vocabulary used by both Europeans and Indians who spoke such languages as Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, and Hindi. In the early 21st century, what came to be known simply as Hindustani—a colloquial spoken language that, depending on geographic location, draws extensively from Hindi and Sanskrit or from Urdu and Persian—continued to be the lingua franca of Kolkata and other cosmopolitan and industrial cities that had drawn people from all parts of India. As Hindi originated in just such a multilingual situation centuries ago, so may urbanism instigate the development of an even richer lexicon and even more flexible syntactic devices.

Pressure on standard Hindi is felt not only from non-Hindi speakers but also from the many Hindi speakers who have recently switched over from their dialects to standard Hindi without having entirely eliminated the influences of those regional languages. In such cases, sound systems often retain a regional touch; for instance, Biharis use /s/ in place of /sh/, and the hill peoples (the so-called Scheduled Tribes) of Uttar Pradesh use /sh/ for /s/. The syntax of such speakers may also have recognizable variants; for example, instead of the standard Hindi form mujhey jana hai ‘I have to go,’ Punjabis and Delhites say maine jana hae, Hindi speakers of Teangana say maiku jana hai, and people of western Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra say apanko jana hai.

The Central Hindi Directorate, a government agency with the mission of standardizing and modernizing Hindi, is moving the language closer to Sanskrit. Non-Hindi speakers, however, are pulling the language in another direction by using increasing numbers of English words and phrases and by simplifying the complex rules of subject-verb agreement found in standard Hindi. Notably, both groups are motivated by the same goal—to widen the scope of Hindi by making it more comprehensible to non-Hindi speakers.