The major systems and their literature

The earliest systematic and most complete collection of early Buddhist sacred literature is the Pali Tipitaka (“Three Baskets”; Sanskrit: Tripitaka). Its arrangement reflects the importance that the early followers attached to the monastic life (Pali and Sanskrit: Vinaya), to the discourses of the Buddha (Pali: Sutta), and subsequently to the interest in scholasticism (Pali: Abhidhamma).

The Pali Vinaya Pitaka (“Basket of Discipline”) is still in theory the rule in Theravada monasteries, even though some sections have fallen into disuse. It is divided into five major parts grouped into three divisions—Sutta-vibhanga (“Division of Rules”), Khandhakas (“Sections”), and Parivara (“Accessory”).

The largest of the three “baskets” is the Sutta Pitaka (“Basket of Discourse”), which consists of five collections (Pali and Sanskrit: nikayas) of the Buddha’s discourses. From a literary viewpoint, many of the discourses can appear to be drawn out and repetitive; however, they are characterized by sublimity of thought and employ rich, beautiful illustrative similes.

The third “basket,” the Abhidhamma Pitaka (“Basket of Special [Further] Doctrine”), comprises seven works. Although based on the contents of the Buddha’s discourses, they deal with topics that were central to Theravada scholastic thought. The Pali version is a strictly Theravada collection and has little in common with the Abhidhamma works recognized by other Buddhist schools.

Early noncanonical texts in Pali

The noncanonical literature of Theravada Buddhism consists, to a large extent, of commentaries on the Tipitaka texts but also includes other works. Prominent among the exponents of Buddhism who attempted to harmonize its apparently conflicting teachings and grasp the inner meaning of its doctrine were Nagasena, Buddhaghosha, Buddhadatta, and Dhammapala.

The Milinda-panha (“Questions of King Menander”), traditionally attributed to Nagasena, is one of the great achievements of Indian prose and was probably written at the time of Menander (160–35 bce) or shortly after. The author begins with an account of his own past lives and those of King Menander because events in those lives will cause the two to meet again in this life. Menander, a well-informed scholar and keen debater, is disheartened when no one is able to resolve problems he raises regarding Buddhist teachings. Impressed by the serenity of the monk Nagasena, the king visits him in his monastery. Their conversation at the monastery and later at the king’s palace is the subject matter of the Milinda-panha, which presents a profound and comprehensive exposition of Buddhist doctrine, ethics, and psychology. This work, like several other noncanonical texts, contains a chariot analogy: although the parts of a chariot put together in a specific way constitute the chariot, there is no chariot as such over and above its parts; similarly, the various components of an individual human being make up the individual, but there is no entity that actually holds the components together.

Buddhaghosha (flourished early 5th century ce) is undoubtedly the most prolific and important writer in the Pali language. There is little agreement about his birthplace, but it is known that he stayed at Bodh Gaya, in eastern India, for a long time. There he most likely met Sinhalese monks, because the vihara (Pali and Sanskrit: monastery) at Bodh Gaya had been built with the permission of Emperor Samudra Gupta (c. 330–380 ce) for Sinhalese pilgrims. Relocating to Sri Lanka, Buddhaghosha stayed at the Mahavihara (“Great Monastery”) in Anuradhapura, which possessed a rich collection of commentarial literature, most likely in Old Sinhalese. Buddhaghosha’s first work probably was the Visuddhimagga (Pali: “The Path of Purification”), a greatly revered compendium of Theravada teaching. He also wrote commentaries on the Vinaya (Pali), the first four nikayas (Pali and Sanskrit), and the seven books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, though the exact chronology of their composition cannot be determined.

Although a number of other works traditionally have been attributed to Buddhaghosha—including the Suttanipata (Pali: “Group of Suttas”), the Khuddaka-patha (Pali: “Collection on Little Readings”), the Dhammapada (Pali: “Verses on the Dhamma”), and the Jatakas (Pali and Sanskrit: “Births”)—modern scholarship indicates that he was not their author. The introduction to commentary on the Jatakas includes the most famous “biography” of the Buddha in Pali; it begins with the hero’s vow, made in a previous life, to become a buddha and concludes with his purported stay at the Jetavana monastery, where he told the 547 stories that follow. These stories, ranging from very brief narratives to full-scale romances, recount events in the Buddha’s previous lives (for example, the story of the Buddha’s last life before his birth as Siddhartha, during which he perfected the virtue of sacrificial giving). In countries where the Theravada school is prominent, these narratives and romances have exerted a tremendous influence on everything from the fine arts to law.

Buddhadatta, a contemporary of Buddhaghosha, was a native of Uragapura, near modern Tiruchchirappalli, in southern India. Like Buddhaghosha, he went to Sri Lanka to study at the Mahavihara in Anuradhapura, and upon his return he wrote his works in a monastery on the banks of the Kaveri River. His Abhidhammavatara (Pali: “The Coming of the Abhidhamma”), though a summary of the older works on the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is one of the most important commentaries on the “basket.” While Buddhadatta’s ideas were similar to those of Buddhaghosha, he did not follow Buddhaghosha blindly. Instead, he reduced Buddhaghosha’s five metaphysical ultimates (form, feeling, sensations, motivations, and perception) to four (mind, mental events, forms, and nirvana). This creative classification, similar to that of the Sarvastivadins (a Buddhist sectarian group that emerged in the mid-3rd century bce and that affirmed ontological realism), makes Buddhadatta a philosopher in his own right rather than a commentator who merely restates matters in new terms.

Dhammapala, who probably came from southern India, is credited with the writing of numerous commentaries, including the Paramattha dipani (Pali: “Elucidation of the True Meaning”), a commentary on several books of the Khuddaka nikaya. In the Paramattha manjusa (Pali: “Jewel Box of the True Meaning”), a commentary on Buddhaghosha’s Visuddhimagga, Dhammapala quotes a verse from the Hindu scripture Bhagavadgita and frequently mentions the views of other schools and teachers. As a result, this work provides valuable information about intellectual activity in traditional circles.

At the close of the 4th century ce, an even older work existed in Sri Lanka. This chronicle of the history of the island from its legendary beginning onward probably was part of the Maha-atthakatha, the commentarial literature that formed the basis of the works by Buddhaghosha and others. The accounts it contains are reflected in the Dipavamsa (Pali: “History of the Island”), which appears to be a poor redaction in Pali of an earlier Old Sinhalese version. The Mahavamsa (Pali: “Great Chronicle”), compiled by Mahanama in the 5th or 6th century, and its continuation in the Chulavamsa (“Little Chronicle”), compiled from the 13th to the 18th century, show much greater skill in the use of the Pali language and make liberal use of other material. These artistic compositions contain rich mythic, legendary, and historical material. The vamsa tradition continued in Sri Lanka (where it remains alive) and other countries where the Theravada school was prominent.

Later Theravada literature

During and after the “revival” and spread of the Theravada in the early centuries of the 2nd millennium ce, a new corpus of Theravada literature came into being. This corpus includes commentaries and other works written in Pali in Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia, as well as many important texts written in Sinhalese, Burmese, Thai, Laotian, and Khmer. One of the important Pali texts is the Mangala dipani, a highly respected commentary on the Mangala-sutta that was written in northern Thailand in the 16th century. Important vernacular texts include the 14th-century Traibhumikatha (“Three Worlds According to King Ruang”), which is the oldest-known full-length text written in Thai, and the Buddhadhamma, a 20th-century work by the Thai monk Prayudh Payutto.