American law

…institution in English and North American law, “knitting together the whole subject of the employment of one man by another, whether for one job or for life, and whether on commission or on payroll.”

According to English and American law, the liability of a principal for his agent’s torts in the ordinary course of his employment depends upon the existence of a master–servant relationship. If the principal and agent stand in a master–servant relationship to each other, the master is vicariously liable for…

In the United States the definition is the same, except that an instrument may only be made payable “to order or to bearer.” If the drawee assents to the order and accepts the bill, which is done by signing his name, or his name with the word…

In the United States the doctrine of natural rights was even more successful. Once the American colonies became independent states (1776), they faced the problem of giving themselves a fresh political organization. They seized the opportunity to spell out in legal documents, which could be amended only…

…are illegal, such as—in the United States—agreements in restraint of trade. Others, such as an agreement to commit a civil wrong, are held by the courts to be contrary to the public interest. Certain systems discourage some purposes, such as the assumption of a legally binding obligation to confer a…

…Penal Code proposed by the American Law Institute in 1962 states that an objective of criminal law should be “to give fair warning of the nature of the conduct declared to constitute an offense” and “to promote the correction and rehabilitation of offenders.” Since that time there has been renewed…

In some countries—for example, the United States, Canada, and various European countries—attempts have been made to combine parental and public responsibility for the child’s welfare.

The more-industrialized states of the United States began to enact such legislation toward the end of the 19th century, but the bulk of the present labour legislation of the United States was not adopted until after the Great Depression of the 1930s. There was virtually no labour legislation in Russia…

…the advanced countries except the United States and the erstwhile Soviet Union, where external influences were secondary. In much of the developing world they were of great importance even before independence, since much of the legislation sponsored there by the colonial powers was based on ILO standards.

In the United States, the federal district courts are by statute granted original jurisdiction, “exclusive of the courts of the States,” of “Any civil case of admiralty or maritime jurisdiction, saving to suitors in all cases all other remedies to which they are otherwise entitled.” This means,…

In the United States distinction is made among common carriers, contract carriers, and private carriers. A person who engages to carry the goods of particular individuals rather than of the general public is a contract carrier; a person who carries his own goods is a private carrier.…

-American law, the custom of courts outside the common law or coded law. Equity provided remedies in situations in which precedent or statutory law might not apply or be equitable.

In the United States, for example, there are 51 separate judicial systems, one for each state and another for the federal government. To a limited extent, the jurisdiction of the federal courts is exclusive of that exercised by the state courts, but there are large areas of…

In the United States the right to a grand-jury indictment for serious crimes is safeguarded in federal courts by the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution. But the federal criminal code permits prosecutors to initiate all cases except those involving capital crimes if the accused waives indictment by…

In the United States the injunction retains its essentially equitable character and, as in England, covers a wide spectrum of types of injurious or potentially injurious conduct. The most significant developments in the United States have been in connection with labour disputes, governmental regulation, and the protection…

In the United States, the appointive method is used in federal courts and some state courts, but ideological and partisan considerations—particularly at the federal level—play a very significant role in appointments to the bench. In the United States, all appointments to the federal bench, and many appointments…

In the United States, jurisdiction is largely personal. If a defendant, either a person or a corporation (a legal person), can be served with a subpoena to appear, the court may become involved in the case. In common-law countries, if personal jurisdiction is impossible to achieve, then…

…and federal reports in the United States were also privately published under the reporter’s name, although the appointment of an official reporter was an early development. Today reported opinions are almost invariably written by the court and are officially published. Late in the 19th century a private publishing concern began…

…the United States the Constitution authorizes Congress to create a national patent system to “promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts” by “securing for limited Times to…Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective…Discoveries” (Article I, Section 8). Congress passed the first Patent Statute in 1790. France enacted its patent…

…cases arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States; in controversies to which the United States is a party; in disputes between states or between citizens of different states; and in cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In suits affecting “Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and…

Constitution, federal laws, executive regulations, or express or implied contract with the government. The court assumed the original jurisdiction formerly exercised by the United States Court of Claims, concurrently abolished in 1982. The present name was adopted in 1992.

…intermediate appellate courts within the United States federal judicial system, including 12 courts whose jurisdictions are geographically apportioned and the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, whose jurisdiction is subject-oriented and nationwide.

…94 judicial districts throughout the United States. Each state has at least one judicial district, as do the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, and a populous state may have as many as four districts. The number of judges varies widely from district to district.

Many Anglo-American legal systems do not prescribe minimum punishments for all crimes. The judge is thus free to consider all the circumstances in setting the punishment up to a prescribed maximum. Some special circumstances automatically reduce an offense to one of lesser degree; for example, provocation…

In the United States, extradition may be granted only pursuant to a treaty and only if Congress has not legislated to the contrary, a situation that also exists in Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Germany and Switzerland extradite without a formal convention in cases where their governments…

In England and the United States legislators are immune from civil liability for statements made during legislative debate. They are also immune from criminal arrest, although they are subject to legal action for crime. French law and practice prohibits the arrest of a member of the legislature during a…

United States, a formal written accusation of crime affirmed by a grand jury and presented by it to a court for trial of the accused. The grand jury system was eliminated in England in 1933, and current law there provides for a bill of indictment…

United States, provision of a state law leaving localities free to forbid or to license certain activities within their boundaries. By accommodating differences of circumstance and feeling between different geographic regions, such provisions reduce conflict at the state level. Some laws, such as prohibition of…

In the United States, the United Kingdom, and India, riot is usually a misdemeanour punishable by light sentences. However, laws in the United Kingdom provide for harsher penalties when rioters refuse to disperse after they have been ordered to do so by a magistrate. In the United…

…fourth chief justice of the United States and principal founder of the U.S. system of constitutional law. As perhaps the Supreme Court’s most influential chief justice, Marshall was responsible for constructing and defending both the foundation of judicial power and the principles of American federalism. The first of his great…

…federal courts, remains a magnificent statement of constitutional federalism. Under Taney’s leadership federal judicial power was expanded over corporations, the federal government was held to have paramount and exclusive authority over foreign relations, and congressional authority over U.S. property and territory was vigorously upheld. His conflict with President Lincoln over…

…communities by virtue of some legal or conventional distinction that can vary between regions or nations. In most cases, however, the concept of city refers to a particular type of community, the urban community, and its culture, known as “urbanism.”

…relatively liberal policy of the United States began in colonial Pennsylvania, whose government was controlled until 1756 by Quaker pacifists. Since the American Civil War and the enactment of the first U.S. conscript law, some form of alternative service has been granted to those unwilling to bear arms. Under the…

…and the optional referendum in U.S. states and municipalities. The obligatory referendum on amendments to state constitutions proposed by state legislatures was first adopted by Connecticut in 1818 and has become the prevailing method for the amendment of all state constitutions. Some states require a referendum on bond issues; and…

In the United States, treason was defined restrictively by the framers of the Constitution. History had taught them that men in power might falsely or loosely charge treason against their opponents; therefore, they denied Congress the authority to enlarge or reshape the offense. Treason against the United…

In the United States this is the function of the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, which limits the exercise of the jurisdiction of state courts to protect defendants against unreasonable burdens. The Fifth Amendment similarly limits federal courts in asserting jurisdiction in…

In the United States the matter is much less clear, although the Supreme Court has held that a pardon blots out guilt and makes the offender “as innocent as if he had never committed the offense.” Some U.S. states have held that a pardon does not remove…

…legislation is supreme in the United States even if it breaches international law, though the government may be held liable for such a breach at the international level. In order to mitigate such a possibility, there is a presumption that the U.S. Congress will not legislate contrary to the country’s…

…much disagreement, especially in the United States, over whether the juvenile court’s informality helps or hurts children. Some argue that, with crowded court calendars and incompetent judges, the court’s purpose is thwarted and that the child is stripped of the rights of criminal defendants with no corresponding relaxation in severity…

In the United States, although the federal tax on succession depends solely on the size of the estate, the additional inheritance taxes levied by the states are widely patterned upon the closeness of relationship. This method is also employed in numerous other countries but not, since 1949,…

…the federal government of the United States, the House of Representatives institutes impeachment proceedings by authorizing a formal inquiry by the House Judiciary Committee, which may then recommend articles of impeachment (an impeachment resolution) for a vote by the full House (articles of impeachment may also be introduced in the…

…fourth chief justice of the United States (1801–35), in Marbury v. Madison (1803), that the Supreme Court of the United States had the power to invalidate legislation enacted by Congress. There was, however, no express warrant for Marshall’s assertion of the power of judicial review in the actual text of…

…written constitutions came from the United States. The United States also gave the world an institution that has become a fundamental feature of many contemporary constitutional systems: judicial review. Rigid written constitutions allow for the existence of special state agencies that ensure the conformity of ordinary legislation to the rules…

…of judicial review in the United States have been enormous. From the late 1930s through the 1960s, a liberal Supreme Court used its powers of judicial review to broaden democratic participation in government and to expand the rights of citizens, especially those of minorities and the accused. Beginning in the…

…of attorney general of the United States was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 that divided the country into districts and set up courts in each one, along with attorneys with the responsibility for civil and criminal actions in their districts. The attorney general, a member of the cabinet,…

In the United States the office is usually elective, but in some states it may be appointive. About half the states have a coroner’s system; in some of the others the sheriff or the justice of the peace performs his functions, while in still others the coroner’s…

In the United States, justices of the peace are elected or appointed and sit on the lowest of the state courts hearing minor civil matters and petty criminal cases, usually misdemeanors. They officiate at weddings, issue arrest warrants, deal with traffic offenses, and hold inquests.

… proceedings, such as in Anglo-American legal systems, often has to swear by the following oath: “I do solemnly swear that the testimony I am about to give will be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help me God.”

In the United States, however, states and counties have their own prosecutors. Only on the federal level is the system unitary, a district attorney being appointed by the U.S. attorney general’s office for each federal district (see attorney general).

…defenders, used primarily in the United States, are to be distinguished from assigned counsel (q.v.), who are private lawyers appointed by the courts to handle particular cases. See also legal aid.

…subsequently was adopted by other U.S. jurisdictions. It involves the creation of a nominating commission that screens judicial candidates and submits to the appointing authority (such as the governor) a limited number of names of individuals considered to be qualified. The appointing authority chooses from the list, and any one…

In the United States and, to a lesser degree, other liberal-democratic states with well-developed legal professions, important scholars have argued that the bar has steadily been losing the very qualities—including most notably independence from its clientele—that distinguish the practice of law from the conduct of any business.…

In the countries of Anglo-American influence, at least until recently, appointment (or, in some U.S. states, election) to a judgeship has been viewed as the crowning achievement of a long and often distinguished legal career. In the Continental countries, by contrast, a law graduate who wishes to be a…

In both the United States and England, entry requirements vary according to the prestige of the law school.

…passed by some of the American colonial legislatures until the Constitution forbade them. In applying these prohibitions, the Supreme Court of the United States has expanded the historical conception of attainder. It invoked these clauses in 1867 in Cummings v. Missouri and Ex parte Garland to strike down loyalty oaths…

In the United States a brief is a written legal argument that is presented to a court to aid it in reaching a conclusion on the legal issues involved in the case. It is invariably employed in appellate courts and is of the utmost importance when no…

In the United States certiorari is used by the Supreme Court to review questions of law or to correct errors and to ensure against excesses by the lower courts. Such writs are also issued in exceptional cases when an immediate review is required. For the Supreme Court…

In Anglo-American law today, deportation is a civil enactment imposed on persons who are neither native-born nor naturalized citizens. The alien is ordinarily, but not necessarily, returned to the country from which he came, usually because he has entered the deporting country illegally or without proper…

…as Great Britain and the United States, general law codes are the exception rather than the rule, largely because much of the law is based on previous judicial decisions. In the United States these codifications tend to be narrower, covering different types of procedure or penal and probate law. States…

Research in the United States, however, has shown that some jurisdictions that use the death penalty have higher murder rates than those that do not. There are several interpretations of this pattern. Some argue that use of the death penalty is a response to, but not a cause…

…strikes” legislation passed in many U.S. states in the 1990s, which imposed mandatory prison sentences after three convictions, was found to have no effect on crime rates. Even the death penalty, as noted above, appears to do little to reduce murder rates, since most jurisdictions that use it (including several…