radio-frequency identification

radio-frequency identification (RFID), method of wireless communication that uses electromagnetic waves to identify and track tags attached to objects, people, or animals. The attached tags, called RFID tags, store digitally encoded data that can be read by an RFID reader. The reader does not need to be in the line of sight of the tag, as with barcode readers, and can thus read tags up to several metres away. RFID is used across industries, typically to track the location and movement of objects, such as items in a supermarket or components in a factory assembly line.

Technology

An RFID system consists of two components: a tag, or label, and a reader. The tag has two functional components: a microchip that stores digital data related to the object being tagged and an antenna that transmits and receives signals. The tag is typically covered by a protective coating to shield against external conditions. Tags can take the form of badges, stickers, or cards and vary in shape and size depending on the purpose for which they are used.

The RFID reader is a radio receiver and transmitter, which transmits a signal to the tag using an antenna. The tag sends the encoded information back to the reader. This communication is a form of automatic identification and data capture (AIDC), wherein the data collection happens automatically once the reader and tag are within range of each other. The reader may be connected to a computer or handheld device, which can use the information to update the object’s status.

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RFID tags are of two types based on their source of power. Passive tags have no power source of their own and rely on the radio wave energy transmitted by the reader to transmit stored information back to the reader. Active tags, on the other hand, include a small battery that helps transmit information. Active RFID tags are thus able to communicate with readers over much larger distances than passive tags can. Tags can be either read-only, wherein the reader can only view the information on the tag, or read-write, in which case the reader can add or modify tag data.

RFID systems also differ on the basis of the frequency at which they operate. Low-frequency (LF) systems range from 30 to 500 kilohertz and have a transmission range of a few centimeters. Car key fobs and access control cards typically use these frequencies. High-frequency (HF) systems range from 3 to 30 megahertz and have a range of up to 1.5 metres (6 feet). Passports, library books, and noncontact payment systems use this frequency range. Ultra-high frequency (UHF) systems use frequencies from 300 to 960 megahertz and can be read at a range of more than 7.5 metres (about 25 feet). Shipping pallets typically use this frequency range. Some RFID systems use microwaves instead of radio waves, running at 2.45 gigahertz and allowing a range of more than 9 metres (about 30 feet).

History of RFID

Swedish scientist and inventor Harry Stockman explored RFID in his paper, “Communication by Means of Reflected Power” (1948). At the time, radio technology was still being developed, and it was another few decades before RFID technology became viable. Radar, which also involves a transmitter receiving reflected signals from objects, was developed before the concept was applied on a smaller scale.

In the 1960s companies such as Sensormatic started using simple tags to track items and to counter thefts. In the 1970s several academic institutions, such as Northwestern University, as well as organizations such as RCA and Fairchild, started investing in RFID research. They mainly focused on vehicle tracking for toll collection, animal tracking, and assembly-line automation. In the 1980s RFID started being used internationally, primarily for toll collection but also for personnel access and industrial processes. The first toll collection using RFID was in Norway in 1986, and in 1989 the Dallas North Turnpike in the U.S. started using RFID. In 1990 seven toll agencies operating in the northeastern U.S. formed the E-Z Pass Interagency Group to develop a regionally compatible toll collection system, allowing a single tag to be used across toll agencies.

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The TIRIS system, developed by Texas Instruments in the 1990s, found applications in gas stations, vehicle access management, ski pass scanning, and even in casinos. In the Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area, a single toll tag allowed access to freeways, airport parking, and downtown parking garages, as well as several gated communities and business campuses. Further advancements by companies such as IBM allowed RFID tags to be built using a single integrated circuit, reducing their size and expanding their potential applications.

RFID technology being used at operating frequency ranges, which vary by country, is governed by standards set primarily by the ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in Europe and the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) in the U.S. For example, the operating frequency range for RFID in the U.S. is 902–928 megahertz. In Europe this frequency range is already used for other applications, so RFID is mostly limited to using alternative frequency bands to prevent its having a negative impact on other technology. Several other countries have adopted one of these standards, though some have created their own guidelines.

RFID applications and concerns

In addition to applications in vehicle and animal tracking, toll collection, shipping, and factory operations, RFID has also found utility in the pharmaceutical industry, where it helps track critical or scheduled drugs. RFID also helps to ensure purity and authenticity of raw materials by tracking such materials at each stage of transport.

RFID requires only proximity, so it works much faster than technologies such as barcode scanning or NFC (near field communication), and provides real-time information sharing. It does not require line of sight for the connection to be completed and reads tags quickly, requiring only a few milliseconds per tag.

However, programming RFID tags can be time-consuming, making the setup tedious and expensive. RFID tags also carry a risk of security breaches, as any reader with access to the frequency range can potentially access information on the tags. This has been particularly concerning in the case of tags containing personal information, such as passports.