Western philosophy: Critical examination of reason in Kant: …Kant called this the “transcendental method,” but more often the “critical method.” His purpose was to reject the dogmatic assumptions of the rationalist school, and his wish was to return to the semiskeptical position with which Descartes had begun before his dogmatic pretensions to certainty took hold. Kant’s method…

transcendental number, number that is not algebraic, in the sense that it is not the solution of an algebraic equation with rational-number coefficients. Transcendental numbers are irrational, but not all irrational numbers are transcendental. For example, x2 – 2 = 0 has the solutions x = ±2; thus,

epistemology: Continental epistemology: …of a series of so-called transcendental reductions that Husserl proposed in order to ensure that he was not presupposing anything. One of those reductions supposedly gave one access to “the transcendental ego,” or “pure consciousness.” Although one might expect phenomenology then to describe the experience or contents of this ego,…

transcendental ego, the self that is necessary in order for there to be a unified empirical self-consciousness. For Immanuel Kant, it synthesizes sensations according to the categories of the understanding. Nothing can be known of this self, because it is a condition, not an object, of knowledge.

dualism: Nature and significance: …identified with the doctrine of transcendence—that there is a separate realm or being above and beyond the world—as opposed to monism, which holds that the ultimate principle is inside the world (immanent). In the disciplines concerned with the study of religions, however, religious dualism refers not to the distinction or…

Transcendentalism, 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of humanity, and the supremacy of insight over logic and

Trans World Airlines, Inc.: …Air Express (founded 1925) and Transcontinental Air Transport (founded 1928). Western Air Express had flown both mail and passengers in its first year of service between Los Angeles and Salt Lake City, Utah (1926), and in 1930 TWA inaugurated coast-to-coast service—Newark, New Jersey, to Los Angeles in 36 hours with…

Canada: The transcontinental railway: With the addition of British Columbia, Canada extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific. To maintain that vast area and to ensure its independence from the United States, it was necessary to build a railway to the west coast. In 1872 an effort…

transcontinental railroad, first railroad to connect the East and West coasts of the United States, linking established rail lines in the eastern part of the country and the Midwest to the western territories. The transcontinental railroad reduced the time it took to travel to the western states

Canada: The transcontinental railway: With the addition of British Columbia, Canada extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific. To maintain that vast area and to ensure its independence from the United States, it was necessary to build a railway to the west coast. In 1872 an effort…

Transcontinental Treaty, (1819) accord between the United States and Spain that divided their North American claims along a line from the southwestern corner of what is now Louisiana, north and west to what is now Wyoming, and thence west along the latitude 42° N to the Pacific. Thus, Spain ceded

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), technique based on electromagnetic induction that is used to stimulate neurons in the brain cortex (the outer layer of brain tissue, or gray matter). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was introduced by English medical physicist Anthony Barker in 1985

virus: The nucleic acid: …an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (transcriptase), which must first catalyze the synthesis of complementary mRNA from the virion genomic RNA before viral protein synthesis can occur. These variations in the nucleic acids of viruses form one central criterion for classification of all viruses.

phonetics: Phonetic transcription: There are many different kinds of phonetic transcription. In some circumstances a phonetic symbol can be simply an abbreviation for a phonetic description. The symbol [s] may then be regarded as exactly equivalent to the phrase “voiceless, alveolar, fricative.” When a linguist tries to…

broadcasting: Monitoring and transcriptions: Transcriptions (recordings) of programs produced in either the domestic or the external services of one country can be acceptable for broadcast in others. Radio broadcasts of an educational nature can be used in different countries speaking the same language. Although many radio transcriptions are supplied…

transcription, the synthesis of RNA from DNA. Genetic information flows from DNA into protein, the substance that gives an organism its form. This flow of information occurs through the sequential processes of transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein). Transcription occurs when

Kate Atkinson: In Transcription (2018) a woman must confront her past as a worker at MI5 during World War II. Post-war London served as the setting for Atkinson’s next book, Shrines of Gaiety (2022), a sprawling novel centring on a nightclub impresario who faces various threats to her…

arrangement, in music, traditionally, any adaptation of a composition to fit a medium other than that for which it was originally written, while at the same time retaining the general character of the original. The word was frequently used interchangeably with transcription, although the latter

transcription factor, molecule that controls the activity of a gene by determining whether the gene’s DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is transcribed into RNA (ribonucleic acid). The enzyme RNA polymerase catalyzes the chemical reactions that synthesize RNA, using the gene’s DNA as a template.

bioinformatics: The data of bioinformatics: Additional “-omics” data streams include: transcriptomics, the pattern of RNA synthesis from DNA; proteomics, the distribution of proteins in cells; interactomics, the patterns of protein-protein and protein–nucleic acid interactions; and metabolomics, the nature and traffic patterns of transformations of small molecules by the biochemical pathways active in

ice: Mechanical properties: It involves two processes: intracrystalline gliding, in which the layers within an ice crystal shear parallel to each other without destroying the continuity of the crystal lattice, and recrystallization, in which crystal boundaries change in size or shape depending on the orientation of the adjacent crystals and the stresses…

strike-slip fault, in geology, a fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust in which the rock masses slip past one another parallel to the strike, the intersection of a rock surface with the surface or another horizontal plane. These faults are caused by horizontal compression, but they release their

Transdanubia, region, that part of Hungary lying west of the Danube River, which flows north-south across the middle of the country. Both the English and the Hungarian versions of the name mean “land beyond the Danube.” Transdanubia is not uniform as a region, and it consists essentially of a

drug: Dermatologic drugs: The transdermal application of drugs can also achieve a systemic rather than local effect. The administration of a drug through the skin not only minimizes the metabolism of the drug before it reaches the rest of the body but also eliminates the high and low blood…

menopause: Estrogen therapy: …applied to the skin (transdermal estrogen) or to the vagina. Estrogen that is applied to the skin is absorbed into the circulation and has effects throughout the body, though it is less active in the liver than oral estrogen and therefore has fewer effects on serum lipids, hormone-binding proteins,…

transdifferentiation, conversion of one differentiated (mature) cell type into another cell type. Transdifferentiation occurs naturally in only a few instances of regeneration. A celebrated example is the Wolffian regeneration of the lens in newts, where removal of the lens of the eye provokes the

Transdniestria, separatist enclave in Moldova, located on the east bank of the Dniester River. Loosely occupying some 1,350 square miles (3,500 square km), the self-proclaimed (1990) Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Republic is not recognized by any state. It has a national bank, national currency (the

transducer, device that converts input energy into output energy, the latter usually differing in kind but bearing a known relation to input. Originally, the term referred to a device that converted mechanical stimuli into electrical output, but it has been broadened to include devices that sense

cell cycle: growth factor receptors, signal transducers, and nuclear regulatory proteins (transcription factors). For a stimulatory signal to reach the nucleus and “turn on” cell division, four main steps must occur. First, a growth factor must bind to its receptor on the cell membrane. Second, the receptor must become temporarily activated…

rod: …activates a small protein called transducin. The association of opsin with transducin couples the external stimulus of light to an internal biochemical pathway that ultimately alters the release of neurotransmitters from the synaptic region of the cell. This changes the firing of the intermediate retinal neurons and affects the electrical…

senses: Mechanical senses: …in cells is known as transduction. An example of mechanical transduction, worked out in studies of fruit fly receptors, consists of channels in the membrane that are triggered to open by stretch, which allows cations to enter the cell.

transduction, a process of genetic recombination in bacteria in which genes from a host cell (a bacterium) are incorporated into the genome of a bacterial virus (bacteriophage) and then carried to another host cell when the bacteriophage initiates another cycle of infection. In general

glacier: Classification of mountain glaciers: Other types include transection glaciers or ice fields, which fill systems of valleys, and glaciers in special situations, such as summit glaciers, hanging glaciers, ice aprons, crater glaciers, and regenerated or reconstituted glaciers. Glaciers that spread out at the foot of mountain ranges are called piedmont glaciers. Outlet…

glacier: Classification of mountain glaciers: Other types include transection glaciers or ice fields, which fill systems of valleys, and glaciers in special situations, such as summit glaciers, hanging glaciers, ice aprons, crater glaciers, and regenerated or reconstituted glaciers. Glaciers that spread out at the foot of mountain ranges are called piedmont glaciers. Outlet…

transept, the area of a cruciform church lying at right angles to the principal axis. The bay at which the transept intersects the main body of the church is called the crossing. The transept itself is sometimes simply called the cross. The nave of a church with a cruciform plan usually extends

transsexuality, variant of gender identity in which the affected person believes that he or she should belong to the opposite sex. The transsexual male, for example, was born with normal female genitalia and other secondary characteristics of the feminine sex; very early in life, however, he

transfection, technique used to insert foreign nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) into a cell, typically with the intention of altering the properties of the cell. The introduction of nucleic acid from a different cell type can be accomplished using various biological, chemical, or physical methods.

art conservation and restoration: Paintings on wood: …the process known as “transfer.” This was accomplished by temporarily adhering a substantial support of paper and, possibly, canvas to the front surface and then cutting away the wood on the back. An entirely new support, of either panel or canvas, was then adhered to the back, and the…

property law: Contract and conveyance: Any legal system that distinguishes between property and obligation (as do all Western systems) will distinguish between a promise to alienate property and the alienation itself. The promise may be fully enforceable between the parties; it may even affect the rights of third parties,…

phloem: Phloem parenchyma cells, called transfer cells and border parenchyma cells, are located near the finest branches and terminations of sieve tubes in leaf veinlets, where they also function in the transport of foods. Companion cells, or albuminous cells in non-flowering vascular plants, are another specialized type of parenchyma and…

transfer factor, small polypeptide that is produced by a type of white blood cell called a T cell and that when passed from one person to another produces cellular hypersensitivity. It was discovered in 1949 by American immunologist Henry Sherwood Lawrence at New York University. Transfer factor is

automation: Automated production lines: …taking place on an automated transfer line must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers, which are special computers that facilitate connections with industrial equipment (such as automated production lines) and can perform the kinds of…

lithography: Fine-art lithography: …use of the process called transfer lithography, by which the tusche drawing is made on paper instead of on the lithographic stone. The drawing is then transferred to the stone and printed in the usual way. This method, which is more convenient than working on stone, retains the paper’s texture…

automation: Automated production lines: …taking place on an automated transfer line must all be sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers, which are special computers that facilitate connections with industrial equipment (such as automated production lines) and can perform the kinds of…

rubber: Shaping: In transfer and injection molds, the rubber mix is forced through channels into a mold chamber of the required shape, where it is cured under pressure. Tires are made of several components: bead wire, sidewall compound, inner liner, cord plies, belt package, and tread; these are…

order in council: …by Parliament; for example, the Ministers of the Crown (Transfer of Functions) Act, 1946, arranged for the redistribution of ministerial functions and the dissolution of government departments to be effected by order in council, confirmed by a resolution of both houses of Parliament.

Hohmann orbit, most economical path (though not the shortest or fastest) for a spacecraft to take from one planet to another. The German engineer Walter Hohmann showed in 1925 that elliptical orbits tangent to the orbits of both the planet of departure and the target planet require the least fuel

government budget: Composition of public expenditure: …of social security and other transfers to individuals and the payment of subsidies to industrial and commercial companies. Both types are usually labeled “public expenditure,” and in many countries attention usually focuses on the aggregate of the two. This obscures important differences in the economic significance of the two items,…

transfer printing, method of decorating pottery by using an inked, engraved copperplate to make a print on paper that, while still wet, is pressed against a glazed pottery surface, leaving behind an impression, or transfer, of the engraving. Sometimes these monochrome transfer prints were

transfer RNA (tRNA), small molecule in cells that carries amino acids to organelles called ribosomes, where they are linked into proteins. In addition to tRNA there are two other major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). By 1960 the involvement of tRNAs in the assembly of

transfer RNA (tRNA), small molecule in cells that carries amino acids to organelles called ribosomes, where they are linked into proteins. In addition to tRNA there are two other major types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). By 1960 the involvement of tRNAs in the assembly of

solid-waste management: Transfer stations: If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger…

Whether we like it or not, the federal government can’t provide services without revenue—and that revenue comes from taxes. For more than a century, Americans have debated how heavily the wealthiest citizens should be taxed. Some believe higher taxes on large fortunes promote fairness, while others

airport: Cargo facilities: …and maintenance, are known as transfer vehicles (TVs) and elevating transfer vehicles (ETVs).

transferase, any one of a class of more than 450 enzymes that catalyze the transfer of various chemical groups (other than hydrogen) from one compound to another. Transaminases, for example, catalyze the transfer of an amino group (―NH2) from an amino acid to an a-keto acid. Phosphate, methyl

Sigmund Freud: Sexuality and development: …pervasive phenomenon, which he called transference (or in the case of the analyst’s desire for the patient, counter-transference). Produced by the projection of feelings, transference, he reasoned, is the reenactment of childhood urges cathected (invested) on a new object. As such, it is the essential tool in the analytic cure,…

homicide: This includes “transferred intent”—as when one who intends to kill another kills a third person by mistake—and intent that may be inferred from the extreme recklessness or dangerousness of the act. Indian law requires that offenders know of the danger they might cause and thus rules out…

transferrin, protein (beta1 globulin) in blood plasma that transports iron from the tissues and bloodstream to the bone marrow, where it is reused in the formation of hemoglobin. Found fixed to the surface of developing red blood cells, transferrin frees iron directly into the cell. Human beings

Transfiguration, in the New Testament, the occasion upon which Jesus Christ took three of his disciples, Peter, James, and John, up on a mountain, where Moses and Elijah appeared and Jesus was transfigured, his face and clothes becoming dazzlingly bright. The Transfiguration is recorded in all

Raphael: Last years in Rome of Raphael: Raphael’s last masterpiece is the Transfiguration (commissioned by Giulio Cardinal de’ Medici in 1517) and depicting the transfiguration of Christ), an enormous altarpiece that was unfinished at his death and completed by his assistant Giulio Romano. The Transfiguration is a complex work that combines extreme formal polish and elegance of…

German literature: Expressionism: Die Wandlung (1919; Transfiguration), a play by Ernst Toller, depicts this kind of transformation in a young man who turns his horrific war experience into a new awareness of the brotherhood of man; his play Masse-Mensch (1920; Man and the Masses) presents the tragic attempt of a woman…

Kizhi Island: The Preobranzhenskaya (Transfiguration) Church (1714), 121 feet (37 m) in height, with its three tiers and 22 cupolas, is often compared to St. Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow’s Red Square. The Preobranzhenskaya houses a collection of iconostases (each a screen or partition with doors and tiers of…

Feast of the Transfiguration, Christian commemoration of the occasion upon which Jesus Christ took three of his disciples, Peter, James, and John, up on a mountain, where Moses and Elijah appeared and Jesus was transfigured, his face and clothes becoming dazzlingly bright (Mark 9:2–13; Matthew

Verklärte Nacht, Op. 4, string sextet for two violins, two violas, and two cellos by Austrian-born American composer Arnold Schoenberg that dates to 1899, before he adopted the 12-tone method of composition that became his signature. It is a highly romantic piece and, as such, is easily the

transubstantiation: …coined the terms transsignification and transfinalization to be used in preference to transubstantiation. But, in his encyclical Mysterium fidei in 1965, Pope Paul VI called for a retention of the dogma of real presence together with the terminology of transubstantiation in which it had been expressed.

mathematical induction: Transfinite induction: A generalization of mathematical induction applicable to any well-ordered class or domain D, in place of the domain of positive integers, is the method of proof by transfinite induction. The domain D is said to be well ordered if the elements (numbers or…

transfinite number, denotation of the size of an infinite collection of objects. Comparison of certain infinite collections suggests that they have different sizes even though they are all infinite. For example, the sets of integers, rational numbers, and real numbers are all infinite; but each is

transform fault, in geology and oceanography, a type of fault in which two tectonic plates slide past one another. A transform fault may occur in the portion of a fracture zone that exists between different offset spreading centres or that connects spreading centres to deep-sea trenches in

Earth: The outer shell: …type of plate boundary, the transform variety, two plates slide parallel to one another in opposite directions. These areas are often associated with high seismicity, as stresses that build up in the sliding crustal slabs are released at intervals to generate earthquakes. The San Andreas Fault in California is an…

integral transform, mathematical operator that produces a new function f(y) by integrating the product of an existing function F(x) and a so-called kernel function K(x, y) between suitable limits. The process, which is called transformation, is symbolized by the equation f(y) = ∫K(x, y)F(x)dx.

transformation, in biology, one of several processes by which genetic material in the form of “naked” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is transferred between microbial cells. Its discovery and elucidation constitutes one of the significant cornerstones of molecular genetics. The term also refers to the

clay mineral: Formation in nature: …mineral formation mechanisms, neoformation and transformation, are induced by weathering and hydrothermal and diagenetic actions.

trigonometry: Transformation of coordinates: A transformation of coordinates in a plane is a change from one coordinate system to another. Thus, a point in the plane will have two sets of coordinates giving its position with respect to the two coordinate systems used, and a transformation will express the relationship…

American Baptist Churches USA: …congregations formed a new movement, Transformation Ministries. Those remaining within the denomination formed a new regional organization, American Baptist Congregations of the Southwest and Hawaii, in 2007.

Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy: The Transformation of Nature in Art (1934) and Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought (1946) are collections of essays expressing his views on the relationship of art to life, traditional art, and the ideological parallels between the arts of the East and the pre-Renaissance…

Franz Liszt: Legacy of Franz Liszt: …and the method of “transformation of themes,” by which one or two themes in different forms can provide the basis for an entire work—a principle from which Wagner derived his system of so-called leitmotifs in his operas.

metamaterial: …a new field known as transformation optics. In transformation optics, a metamaterial with varying values of permittivity and permeability is constructed such that light takes a specific desired path. One of the most remarkable designs in transformation optics is the invisibility cloak. Light smoothly wraps around the cloak without introducing…

formal logic: Axiomatization of PC: Such rules are called transformation rules. Sometimes the word “theorem” is used to cover axioms as well as theorems; the word “thesis” is also used for this purpose.

P.A.M. Dirac: …interpretation into a general scheme—transformation theory—that was the first complete mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics. Along the way, Dirac also developed the Fermi-Dirac statistics (which had been suggested somewhat earlier by Enrico Fermi).

advanced structural ceramics: Transformation toughening: The most promising toughening mechanism for ceramic materials involves a phase transformation; the method is referred to as transformation toughening and is illustrated in Figure 1. Although other materials such as alumina can be transformation-toughened, zirconia (zirconium dioxide, ZrO2) is the prototype material…

formal logic: Validity in PC: …is said to make an equivalence transformation.

As Franz Kafka lay troubled and restless one night, he found himself in his bed struck by an idea for a disturbing story. Over the next few weeks he would develop that idea into The Metamorphosis. The novella, first published in German as Die Verwandlung in 1915, became one of the most celebrated

advanced structural ceramics: Transformation toughening: Ceramics such as transformation-toughened zirconia (TTZ) are often referred to as ceramic steel because the strain, or change in dimension, in response to stress behaviour resembles that of steel instead of a brittle ceramic. Also, the underlying phase transformation is called martensitic, after a similar transformation in rapidly…

transformational grammar, a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules (some of which are called transformations) to express these relationships. For example,

linguistics: Chomsky’s grammar: …Chomsky) includes both phrase-structure and transformational rules (as well as morphophonemic rules). The transformational rules depend upon the prior application of the phrase-structure rules and have the effect of converting, or transforming, one phrase marker into another. What is meant by this statement may be clarified first with reference to…

transformational grammar, a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the various elements of a sentence and among the possible sentences of a language and uses processes or rules (some of which are called transformations) to express these relationships. For example,

Anne Sexton: …among others, Love Poems (1969), Transformations (1971), The Book of Folly (1972), and The Death Notebooks (1974).

William Shatner: Other work: …he released the widely mocked The Transformed Man (1968), an album of spoken-word renderings of popular tunes. He cowrote the memoirs Star Trek Memories (1993), Star Trek Movie Memories (1994), and Up Till Now (2008). The volume Get a Life! (1999) was an exploration of the rabid cultural obsession with…

glam rock: …career and American glam with Transformer (1972), coproduced by Bowie.

transformer, device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage. Transformers are employed for widely varying purposes; e.g., to reduce the voltage of conventional power

carbon cycle: …as CO2 by decay, or decomposer, organisms (chiefly bacteria and fungi) in a series of microbial transformations.

Megan Fox: Debut and breakthrough: …in Michael Bay’s blockbuster film Transformers (2007) and its first sequel, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009). She provided Banes’s voice for the video games Transformers: The Game (2007) and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009), as well as the voice for Superman’s girlfriend Lois Lane in the TV movie…

Kelsey Grammer: Later film and TV credits: …screen in the action thrillers Transformers: Age of Extinction and The Expendables 3. He then played the father of a hard-partying sorority girl (Chloë Grace Moretz) in the broad comedy Neighbors 2: Sorority Rising (2016) and a workaholic father who ends up with his estranged daughter (Kristen Bell) on a…

Frances McDormand: …included Burn After Reading (2008), Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011), and Moonrise Kingdom (2012).

Megan Fox: Debut and breakthrough: … (2007) and its first sequel, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009). She provided Banes’s voice for the video games Transformers: The Game (2007) and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009), as well as the voice for Superman’s girlfriend Lois Lane in the TV movie Robot Chicken: DC Comics Special (2012).

Gemma Chan: Humans, Fantastic Beasts, and Transformers: …the Harry Potter series, and Transformers: The Last Knight (2017), the fifth installment of the franchise.

Leonard Nimoy: …memorable effect as Galvatron in Transformers: The Movie (1986) and as Sentinel Prime in Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011). He narrated numerous documentaries, among them Titanica (1992) and A Life Apart: Hasidism in America (1997). In later years he turned increasingly toward photography (which he had studied at the…

Theodore William Schultz: In Transforming Traditional Agriculture (1964), Schultz challenged the prevailing view, held by development economists, that farmers in developing countries were irrational in their unwillingness to innovate. He argued that, to the contrary, the farmers were making rational responses to high taxes and artificially low crop prices…

Italy: Politics and the political system, 1870–87: Trasformismo (“transformism”) became the normal way of conducting parliamentary business, for there were few serious disputes among the leading politicians. Virtually all of them accepted the constitutional settlement of 1861, and few disputed foreign and colonial policy, which, in any case, was conducted by foreign…

blood transfusion, the transfer of blood into the vein of a human or animal recipient. The blood either is taken directly from a donor or is obtained from a blood bank. Blood transfusions are a therapeutic measure used to restore blood or plasma volume after extensive hemorrhage, burns, or trauma;