guidance counseling, the process of helping individuals discover and develop their educational, vocational, and psychological potentialities and thereby to achieve an optimal level of personal happiness and social usefulness. The concept of counseling is essentially democratic in that the

guidance counseling, the process of helping individuals discover and develop their educational, vocational, and psychological potentialities and thereby to achieve an optimal level of personal happiness and social usefulness. The concept of counseling is essentially democratic in that the

morality police, law enforcement body in Iran created in 2005 to enforce regulations on modest dress (ḥijāb) and chaste behavior (ʿifāf). The term “morality police” is informally applied to the body by international commentators, but it is officially called Gasht-e Ershad (Persian: “Guidance

rocket and missile system: Tactical guided missiles: But it was in their guidance systems that these missiles gained their distinction, since the ability to make down-course corrections in order to seek or “home” onto a target separated guided missiles from purely ballistic weapons such as free-flight rockets and artillery shells.

Judaism: Other Jewish thinkers, c. 1050–c. 1150: …al-hidāyah ilā farā’iḍ alqulūb (“Guidance to the Duties of the Heart”), which combines a theology influenced by Saʿadia with a moderate mysticism inspired by the teachings of the Sufis. The commandments of the heart—that is, those relating to thoughts and sentiments—are contrasted with the commandments of the limbs—that is,…

rocket and missile system: Design principles: …generally expressed as launch-point errors, guidance/en-route errors, or aim-point errors. Both launch- and aim-point errors can be corrected by surveying the launch and target areas more accurately. Guidance/en-route errors, on the other hand, must be corrected by improving the missile’s design—particularly its guidance. Guidance/en-route errors are usually measured by a…

Youssou N’Dour: …release of his solo album The Guide (Wommat) (1994) that N’Dour was catapulted to global stardom.

Auguste Escoffier: Publications: …Escoffier wrote several books, notably Le Guide culinaire (1903, cowritten with Philéas Gilbert and Émile Fetu; The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery), which listed dishes according to their order of presentation and included the first à la carte menus; Le Livre des menus (1912; “The Book of…

guide dog, dog that is professionally trained to guide, protect, or aid its master. Systematic training of guide dogs originated in Germany during World War I to aid blinded veterans. Seeing Eye dog, a moniker often used synonymously with guide dog, refers to a guide dog trained by The Seeing Eye,

Alonso Carrió de Lavandera: …ciegos caminantes (1775; El Lazarillo: A Guide for Inexperienced Travellers Between Buenos Aires and Lima) was originally attributed to Don Calixto Bustamente, Carrió’s Indian guide and traveling companion. Investigation revealed that Carrió had used a pseudonym to avoid punishment for having been critical of the Spanish regime. Critics have praised…

Gene Kelly: Films of the 1960s and beyond: Kelly also directed the comedy A Guide for the Married Man (1967), which starred Walter Matthau as the title character being tutored on how to efficiently cheat on his wife. That same year Kelly returned to France to play an American piano player in Jacques Demy’s tribute to Hollywood musicals…

Salomon Maimon: …an unorthodox commentary on Maimonides’ Moreh nevukhim (The Guide for the Perplexed) that earned him the hostility of fellow Jews. At 25 he traveled to Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), and wandered over Europe until he settled in Posen, Pol., as a tutor. His material insecurity ended in 1790, when…

index fossil, any animal or plant preserved in the rock record of the Earth that is characteristic of a particular span of geologic time or environment. A useful index fossil must be distinctive or easily recognizable, abundant, and have a wide geographic distribution and a short range through

restaurant: French restaurants in the 20th century: …are evaluated annually by the Guide Michelin, a publication devoted to surveying eating establishments and hotels in more than 3,400 towns and cities and awarding one, two, or three stars, based upon quality.

technology of photography: Flash exposures: …determined by measurement or by guide-number calculation.

Salomon Maimon: …an unorthodox commentary on Maimonides’ Moreh nevukhim (The Guide for the Perplexed) that earned him the hostility of fellow Jews. At 25 he traveled to Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia), and wandered over Europe until he settled in Posen, Pol., as a tutor. His material insecurity ended in 1790, when…

road: Traffic control: …clearances, and slippery surfaces); and guide signs, which give route information (e.g., numbers or designations, distances, directions, and points of interest).

Art movements break up tens of thousands of years of art history into time periods or categories that have common techniques, themes, or philosophies. Some movements have been demarcated retrospectively, some identified contemporaneously as part of a larger cultural trend, and others defined by the

map: Greek maps and geography: His monumental work, the Guide to Geography (Geōgraphikē hyphēgēsis), was produced in eight volumes. The first volume discussed basic principles and dealt with map projection and globe construction. The next six volumes carried a list of the names of some 8,000 places and their approximate latitudes and longitudes. Except…

Phoebe Worrall Palmer: …a regular contributor to the Guide to Holiness, the chief periodical of the perfectionist movement, and she wrote a number of books, including The Way of Holiness (1845).

Guide to Kulchur, prose work by Ezra Pound, published in 1938. A brilliant but fragmentary work, it consists of a series of apparently unrelated essays reflecting his thoughts on various aspects of culture and

Oregon Trail: Guidebooks and other practicalities: Travel guidebooks became available to the emigrants shortly after use of the trail became widespread. One of the earliest and most popular of these was Landsford Hastings’s The Emigrant’s Guide to Oregon and California (1845). For Mormons, there was The Latter-day…

Indonesia: Introduction of Guided Democracy: Against a background of geographically scattered yet salient dissent, Sukarno, resentful of his circumscribed position as figurehead president, began to interfere more frequently in the constitutional processes. In 1956 Vice President Hatta, who had been considered Sukarno’s partner in leadership, announced his resignation,…

music therapy: Approaches in music therapy: Guided imagery and music (GIM), originally devised by American music therapist Helen Lindquist Bonny in the 1960s and early ’70s, is a music-based psychotherapeutic practice that aims to integrate emotional, mental, physical, and spiritual components of well-being. During a session, the therapist guides the patient…

guided missile, projectile provided with means for altering its direction after leaving its launching device. See

artillery: Nuclear shells, guided projectiles, and rocket assistance: …step was the development of guided projectiles. With the 155-millimetre Copperhead, a U.S. system, a forward observer could “illuminate” a target with laser light, a portion of which would be reflected and picked up by sensors in the approaching shell. The greater part of the shell’s flight would be entirely…

warship: Cruisers: …the keel up as a guided-missile cruiser and the first surface warship to steam under atomic energy. This 14,000-ton ship was followed by a series of nuclear-powered U.S. cruisers that ended, in the 1970s, with the 10,400-ton Virginia class. This class has been supplemented since the 1980s and ’90s by…

rocket and missile system: Surface-to-air: The SA-2 Guideline, introduced in 1958, was the most widely deployed of the early SAMs and was the first surface-to-air guided-missile system used in combat. This two-stage missile with a solid booster and a liquid-propellant (kerosene and nitric acid) sustainer, could engage targets at ranges of…

government economic policy: Conflicts among goals: …most moderate is the so-called guideposts system, under which the government announces the need for restraints on wage increases and perhaps also sets targets to guide unions and management; this was attempted in the United States in the early 1960s. In Sweden, responsibility for limiting wage increases has been assigned…

Girl Guides and Girl Scouts, worldwide organizations for girls, dedicated to training them in good citizenship, good conduct, and outdoor activities. Robert (later Lord) Baden-Powell and his sister Agnes Baden-Powell founded the Girl Guides in Great Britain in 1910 in response to the requests of

mass transit: Growth in the 19th century: …limited to operations on fixed guideways (rails), and extending the service required installing more rails, a large and semipermanent investment. This inflexibility of a rail-based system was balanced by its low rolling resistance, which permitted the connection of several vehicles into trains where the demand for travel in the corridor…

Guidi Family, an Italian family that originated in the Romagna in the 10th century and came to dominate by the mid-12th century the Florentine contado (district), with possessions in its eastern region and in Tuscan Romagna, the contadi of Bologna, Faenza, Forlì, and Ravenna, and in the hilly

Italian literature: Poetry and prose: …sonneteer, Vincenzo da Filicaia, and Alessandro Guidi, who wrote exalted odes, were hailed as major poets and reformers of the excesses of the Baroque. Though they retained much of the earlier bombast, their consciousness of the need for rational reform led to the foundation of the Accademia dell’Arcadia.

Masaccio was an important Florentine painter of the Early Renaissance whose frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence (c. 1427) remained influential throughout the Renaissance. In the span of only six years, Masaccio radically transformed Florentine

plasma: Methods of describing plasma phenomena: …the orbit is called the guiding centre. The particle may also have a component of velocity parallel to the magnetic field and so traces out a helix in a uniform magnetic field. If a uniform electric field (E) is applied at right angles to the direction of the magnetic field,…

radio: Soap operas: The Guiding Light, which debuted over NBC in January 1937, was originally about a minister and his family, and it stands as the longest-running soap opera in history, broadcasting on both radio and television from 1952 to 1956 and finally airing its last television episode…

Guido d’Arezzo was a medieval music theorist whose principles served as a foundation for modern Western musical notation. Educated at the Benedictine abbey at Pomposa, Guido evidently made use of the music treatise of Odo of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés and apparently developed his principles of staff

Paschal (III) was an antipope from 1164 to 1168. Against Pope Alexander III, he was one of the original supporters of the antipope Victor IV, whom he succeeded on April 22, 1164, becoming the second antipope set up by the Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. Elected through the influence of

Guido da Siena was one of the first Italian painters to break with the centuries-old conventions of Byzantine painting, such as rigid compositional balance and frontality. Although the precise dating of his work has not been established, it is clear that he introduced more spontaneous gestures and

Celestine II was the pope from 1143 to 1144. A scholar of noble birth, he studied under Peter Abélard, with whom he remained on friendly terms even after Abélard’s condemnation at the Council of Sens (1140). He was made cardinal deacon in 1127 by Pope Honorius II and cardinal priest (c. 1134) by

Guido Delle Colonne was a jurist, poet, and Latin prose writer whose poetry was praised by Dante and whose Latin version of the Troy legend was important in bringing the story to Italians and, through various translations, into English literature. Guido delle Colonne apparently was a learned man, a

Celestine (II) was a pope who was elected in December 1124 but resigned a few days later and is not counted in the official list of popes. After the death of Calixtus II, the rival houses of Frangipani and Pierleoni struggled for the papal throne. The Pierleonis’ candidate, Theobald (who would have

Fra Angelico was an Italian painter, one of the greatest 15th-century painters, whose works within the framework of the early Renaissance style embody a serene religious attitude and reflect a strong Classical influence. A great number of works executed during his career are altarpieces and

Guy II was a duke of Spoleto, who was claimant to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in the chaotic end of the Carolingian era. His father, Guy I, duke of Spoleto, had come to Italy in the entourage of Lothar I and had successfully expanded his family’s power in central and southern Italy.

Guido d’Arezzo was a medieval music theorist whose principles served as a foundation for modern Western musical notation. Educated at the Benedictine abbey at Pomposa, Guido evidently made use of the music treatise of Odo of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés and apparently developed his principles of staff

Callixtus II was the pope from 1119 to 1124. A son of Count William I of Burgundy, he was appointed archbishop of Vienne, in Lower Burgundy, in 1088. He became well known as a spokesman of a reform party within the church and as a foe of the policy of the Holy Roman emperor Henry V. When Pope

Polenta Family: The family’s ascendancy began with Guido da Polenta (d. 1310), known as Guido Minore, or Guido the Old, who led the Guelf, or pro-papal, faction in Ravenna against the Ghibelline, or pro-emperor, faction. Ravenna, traditionally Ghibelline, had fallen to the Guelfs in 1239. When the emperor Frederick II reconquered the…

Argentina: Attempts to restore constitutionalism, 1955–66: …government in the name of José María Guido, president pro tempore of the Senate. Guido’s 18-month administration was one of confusion as two military factions fought for control. The Colorados (“Reds”) sought a dictatorship that would deal strongly with the Peronists and extreme leftists. The Azules (“Blues”), who prevailed, favoured…

flag: Forms and functions: The guidon (a word derived from the French guyd-homme) was similar to the standard but was rounded in the fly or had two swallow tails, both rounded. Guidons were borne by leaders in battle who were of no more than knightly rank and so not entitled…

Guido d’Arezzo: …is no evidence that the Guidonian hand, a mnemonic device associated with his name and widely used in the Middle Ages, had any connection with Guido d’Arezzo.

Guyenne, former region of southwestern France, merged with Gascony for the last centuries before the French Revolution in the gouvernement of Guyenne and Gascony (Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The Guyenne region corresponds to the modern département of Gironde and to most of the départements of

Lake Guier, lake, northwestern Senegal. It is situated 40 miles (64 km) east of the city of Saint-Louis. Lake Guier is fed by the Bounoum (Ferlo) tributary from the south and empties into the Sénégal River to the north. Its water is fresh, and a dam, built in 1916, prevents salt from entering the

Giuseppe Giusti: …satire, written in 1833, was La guigliottina a vapore (“The Steam Guillotine”), which announced that the Chinese had invented a steam guillotine that would make decapitation much more efficient for dictators. Other satires defended Italy or bemoaned its political and social state.

Guignol, most prominent puppet character in France, where his name became synonymous with puppet theatre. The hand puppet was created by the puppeteer Laurent Mourguet of Lyons in the early 19th century and was supposedly named for an actual canut, or Lyonnais silk worker. Guignol was performed

Louis-Ferdinand Céline: Other works include Guignol’s Band (1944), Casse Pipe (1949; “Shooting Gallery”), and Entretiens avec le Professeur Y (1955; “Conversations with Professor Y”).

Dauphiné: …the countship was enfeoffed to Guigues I, count of Albon, who extended his domain to include other parts of the kingdom of Arles. His great-grandson Guigues IV, count from 1133 to 1142, was the first to bear the name Dauphin, which was to distinguish his successors. The domain passed from…

Dauphiné: His great-grandson Guigues IV, count from 1133 to 1142, was the first to bear the name Dauphin, which was to distinguish his successors. The domain passed from the house of Albon to that of Burgundy in 1162 and to the La Tour du Pin family in 1282.…

Saint Gilbert of Sempringham ; canonized 1202; feast day February 4, feast day in Northampton and Nottingham February 16) was an English priest, prelate, and founder of the Ordo Gilbertinorum Canonicorum or Ordo Sempringensis (Order of Gilbertine Canons, or Sempringham Order), commonly called

Yvette Guilbert was a French singer, reciter, and stage and film actress, who had an immense vogue as a singer of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life. Her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with risqué meaning made her famous. As a child Guilbert attended recitation school and was

Yvette Guilbert was a French singer, reciter, and stage and film actress, who had an immense vogue as a singer of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class life. Her ingenuous delivery of songs charged with risqué meaning made her famous. As a child Guilbert attended recitation school and was

guild, an association of craftsmen or merchants formed for mutual aid and protection and for the furtherance of their professional interests. Guilds flourished in Europe between the 11th and 16th centuries and formed an important part of the economic and social fabric in that era. The medieval

guild, in ecology, a group of species that exploits the same kinds of resources in comparable ways. The name “guild” emphasizes the fact that these groups are like associations of craftsmen who employ similar techniques in plying their trade. They often are composed of groups of closely related

rocket and missile system: Surface-to-air: Beginning with the SA-1 Guild, developed in the immediate postwar period, the Soviets steadily fielded SAMs of growing sophistication. These fell into two categories: systems such as the Guild, the SA-3 Goa, the SA-5 Gammon, and the SA-10 Grumble, which were deployed in defense of fixed installations; and…

metalwork: Middle Ages: Large guild flagons of a characteristic polygonal design, only 11 of them have been preserved. Their faceted surfaces are engraved with figures of saints surrounded by interlaced foliage scrolls, arches, arcades, and other late Gothic decorative motifs. Hidden among these motifs, one sometimes finds secular scenes,…

Nikolay Stepanovich Gumilyov: …the group known as the Guild of Poets. Among the group’s members were Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam, who together with Gumilyov soon formed the nucleus of the emerging Acmeist movement in Russian poetry. Gumilyov’s poetry collection entitled Cuzoe nebo (1912; “Foreign Sky”) established his reputation as a leading Russian poet.

Guild Socialism, a movement that called for workers’ control of industry through a system of national guilds operating in an implied contractual relationship with the public. The Guild Socialist movement developed in England and had its main impact there in the first two decades of the 20th

Hamlet: Something is rotten in the state of Denmark: …Hamlet’s onetime friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on him. Hamlet quickly sees through the scheme and begins to act the part of a madman in front of them. To the pompous old courtier Polonius, it appears that Hamlet is lovesick over Polonius’s daughter Ophelia. Despite Ophelia’s loyalty to him,…

guilder, former monetary unit of the Netherlands. In 2002 the guilder ceased to be legal tender after the euro, the monetary unit of the European Union, became the country’s sole currency. The guilder was adopted as the Netherlands’ monetary unit in 1816, though its roots trace to the 14th century,

Guildford: Guildford, town and borough (district), administrative and historic county of Surrey, England, at a ford across the River Wey on the north side of the gap by which its valley breaches the chalk ridge of the North Downs.

Guildford, town and borough (district), administrative and historic county of Surrey, England, at a ford across the River Wey on the north side of the gap by which its valley breaches the chalk ridge of the North Downs. The town of Guildford was already a manor in Saxon times, and its church tower

Guildhall, administrative centre of the City of London. Within its halls are the offices and meeting rooms of the Corporation of London and its Court of Common Council, which is the body responsible for governing the City and for defending its interests throughout the London metropolitan area. The

guild: Structure and social role: …built and maintained residences, called guildhalls, in which the membership would hold banquets and conduct official business.

Museum of London: …of two well-established museums, the Guildhall Museum and the London Museum. The former, founded by the Corporation of London in 1826, housed many archaeological discoveries of the previous two centuries from Roman and medieval London, the Hanbury Beaufoy collection of tradesmen’s tokens, and material relating to the city guilds and…

Guilford, town (township), New Haven county, southern Connecticut, U.S., on Long Island Sound. Settled by Puritans in 1639 as Menunketuck, it was admitted to New Haven colony as a town in 1643 and probably renamed for Guildford, England. The village of Guilford was incorporated as a borough in

Guilford College, private, coeducational institution of higher learning in Greensboro, North Carolina, U.S., affiliated with the Society of Friends (Quakers). Guilford is a liberal arts college and offers bachelor’s degree programs only. Campus facilities include an observatory, a

Battle of Guilford Courthouse, battle in the American Revolution fought in South Carolina on March 15, 1781, a battlefield loss but strategic victory for the Americans in North Carolina over the British, who soon afterward were obliged to abandon control of the Carolinas. After the American victory

Frederick North, Lord North was the prime minister from 1770 to 1782, whose vacillating leadership contributed to the loss of Great Britain’s American colonies in the American Revolution (1775–83). The son of a Tory nobleman, the 1st earl of Guilford, North was educated at Eton and Trinity College,

Joy Paul Guilford was an American psychologist and practitioner of psychophysics—the quantitative measurement of subjective psychological phenomena—exemplified by his studies of the relative affectiveness of colour, hue, brightness, and saturation for men and women. Guilford taught at the

Kimberly Guilfoyle’s résumé is eclectic, to say the least. Currently U.S. Pres. Donald Trump’s ambassador to Greece, Guilfoyle is perhaps better known for things she was formerly, including: Guilfoyle grew up in San Francisco, the daughter of Mercedes Marie Gerena and Anthony Guilfoyle. Her mother

Kimberly Guilfoyle’s résumé is eclectic, to say the least. Currently U.S. Pres. Donald Trump’s ambassador to Greece, Guilfoyle is perhaps better known for things she was formerly, including: Guilfoyle grew up in San Francisco, the daughter of Mercedes Marie Gerena and Anthony Guilfoyle. Her mother

William IX was a medieval troubadour, count of Poitiers and duke of Aquitaine and of Gascony (1086–1127), son of William VIII and grandfather of the famous Eleanor of Aquitaine. William IX spent most of his life in warfare, including leading an unsuccessful Crusade to the Holy Land (1101–02) and

peach palm, (Bactris gasipaes), species of palm (family Arecaceae), that is grown extensively for its edible fruits. The peach palm is cultivated from Central America as far south as Ecuador. Known as palm chestnuts, the fruits are commonly stewed and flavoured with salt or honey. The somewhat dry

Guilin, city, northeastern Zhuang Autonomous Region of Guangxi, southern China. The natural route centre of the Gui River basin, Guilin lies along the easiest of all the routes leading from central China to Guangdong province—that between the headwaters of the Xiang River in Hunan province and the

Somalia: Early activity on the coasts: …had previously been visited by Charles Guillain, captain of the brig Ducouedid, between 1846 and 1848. Guillain also sailed down the Indian Ocean coast and went ashore at Mogadishu, Marca, and Baraawe, penetrating some distance inland and collecting valuable geographic and ethnographic information. In 1865 the German explorer Karl Klaus…

Guillain-Barré syndrome: Historical developments: In 1916, French neurologists Georges Guillain, Jean-Alexandre Barré, and André Strohl found that patients with symptoms of a condition resembling Landry paralysis had elevated concentrations of protein in their cerebrospinal fluid. In 1919, Guillain and Barré acknowledged Landry paralysis in a report describing a fatal case of the syndrome…

Guillain-Barré syndrome, rare autoimmune condition of the peripheral nervous system. Guillain-Barré syndrome can range from mild to severe. Severe cases typically involve muscle paralysis and potentially life-threatening difficulties in breathing and swallowing. The condition affects individuals of

Guillain-Barré syndrome, rare autoimmune condition of the peripheral nervous system. Guillain-Barré syndrome can range from mild to severe. Severe cases typically involve muscle paralysis and potentially life-threatening difficulties in breathing and swallowing. The condition affects individuals of

World War I: The Western Front, June–December 1917: …French 2nd Army under General M.-L.-A. Guillaumat fought the last battle of Verdun, winning back all the remainder of what had been lost to the Germans in 1916. In October General P.-A.-M. Maistre’s 10th Army, in the Battle of Malmaison, took the ridge of the Chemin des Dames, north of…

William the Aetheling was an Anglo-Norman prince, the only son of Henry I of England and recognized duke of Normandy (as William IV, or as William III if the earlier claim of his uncle, William Rufus, is not acknowledged). He succeeded his uncle, the imprisoned Duke Robert II Curthose. In

William de Hauteville was a Norman adventurer, the eldest of 12 Hauteville brothers, a soldier of fortune who led the first contingent of his family from Normandy to southern Italy. He undertook its conquest and quickly became count of Apulia. William and his brothers Drogo and Humphrey responded

William Clito was the count of Flanders and titular duke of Normandy (as William IV, or as William III if England’s William Rufus’ earlier claim to the duchy is not acknowledged). Son of Duke Robert II Curthose (and grandson of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders), William Clito was

Chrétien de Troyes: The non-Arthurian tale Guillaume d’Angleterre, based on the legend of St. Eustace, may also have been written by Chrétien.

William of Auvergne was the most prominent French philosopher-theologian of the early 13th century and one of the first Western scholars to attempt to integrate Classical Greek and Arabic philosophy with Christian doctrine. William became a master of theology at the University of Paris in 1223 and

William of Auxerre was a French philosopher-theologian who contributed to the adaptation of classical Greek philosophy to Christian doctrine. He is considered the first medieval writer to develop a systematic treatise on free will and the natural law. Probably a student of the Parisian canon and

Guillaume d’Orange, central hero of some 24 French epic poems, or chansons de geste, of the 12th and 13th centuries. The poems form what is sometimes called La Geste de Guillaume d’Orange and together tell of a southern family warring against the Spanish Muslims. Modern research suggests that at

French literature: The chansons de geste: Dominating the Geste de Garin de Monglane is Garin’s great-grandson, Guillaume d’Orange, whose historical prototype was the count of Toulouse and Charlemagne’s cousin. His dogged loyalty to an unworthy monarch (Charlemagne’s son Louis) is the subject of a group of poems that include the Chanson de Guillaume…

William of Champeaux was a French bishop, logician, theologian, and philosopher who was prominent in the Scholastic controversy on the nature of universals (i.e., words that can be applied to more than one particular thing). After studies under the polemicist Manegold of Lautenbach in Paris, the

William Of Conches was a French Scholastic philosopher and a leading member of the School of Chartres. A pupil of the philosopher Bernard of Chartres, he taught at Chartres and Paris and was tutor to Henry (later Henry II of England), son of Geoffrey Plantagenet. William, a realist whose ideas

French literature: Allegory: …Pilgrimage of Human Life”) by Guillaume de Deguileville, Dante’s contemporary and a precursor of John Bunyan. But the most influential allegorical work in French was the Roman de la rose (The Romance of the Rose), where courtly love is first celebrated, then undermined. The first 4,058 lines were written about…

Jean Renart: …children who flee to France; Guillaume de Dôle, the story of a calumniated bride who cunningly defends her reputation; and the Lai de l’ombre, about a knight who presses a ring on his lady and, when she refuses it, throws it to her reflection in a well—a gesture that persuades…