Benue River, river in western Africa, longest tributary of the Niger, about 673 miles (1,083 km) in length. It rises in northern Cameroon as the Bénoué at about 4,400 feet (1,340 metres) and, in its first 150 miles (240 km), descends more than 2,000 feet (600 metres) over many falls and rapids, the

Makurdi: Makurdi is home to Benue State University, the Federal University of Agriculture, the Assemblies of God Comprehensive College, and a government craft school and is served by a hospital. The Benue state radio broadcasting service operates from the town. Makurdi is the headquarters of the Lower Benue River Basin…

Benue-Congo languages, the largest branch of the Niger-Congo language family, in terms of the number of speakers, the number of languages, and the wide geographic spread, stretching from the Benin-Nigeria border across Nigeria and Cameroon through central Africa to eastern Africa. It includes all

Nino Benvenuti was an Italian professional boxer, Olympic welterweight and world middleweight champion. His career record was 82 victories (35 by knockout), 7 losses, and 1 draw. Benvenuti was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1992. (Read Gene Tunney’s 1929 Britannica essay on

Nino Benvenuti was an Italian professional boxer, Olympic welterweight and world middleweight champion. His career record was 82 victories (35 by knockout), 7 losses, and 1 draw. Benvenuti was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1992. (Read Gene Tunney’s 1929 Britannica essay on

Hector Berlioz: Mature career of Hector Berlioz: An adaptation of Benvenuto Cellini’s autobiography was secured, and Berlioz finished his score in a short time. The intrigue now passed to the other side, which saw to it that the production of Benvenuto Cellini at the Opéra failed. From this blow the work itself and the composer’s…

Benxi, city, southeast-central Liaoning sheng (province), northeastern China. It is situated some 45 miles (75 km) southeast of Shenyang (Mukden) on the Taizi River. From the time of the Liao dynasty (907–1125), Benxi was the centre of a small-scale iron industry, and coal began to be mined in the

Benxi: …changed its name to the Benxi Coal and Iron Company. It was efficiently managed and remained important, but it gradually became dominated by Japanese interests (its Japanese name was Honkei or Honkeiko).

Benxi: …changed its name to the Benxi Coal and Iron Company. It was efficiently managed and remained important, but it gradually became dominated by Japanese interests (its Japanese name was Honkei or Honkeiko).

Benxi: …changed its name to the Benxi Coal and Iron Company. It was efficiently managed and remained important, but it gradually became dominated by Japanese interests (its Japanese name was Honkei or Honkeiko).

Honkeiko colliery mining disaster, deadly explosion that occurred on April 26, 1942, in a coal mine at Benxi, Liaoning province, China. The disaster killed 1,549 Chinese miners. The colliery (called Honkeiko by the Japanese and Benxihu by the Chinese) was located near Benxi Lake in the ore-rich

John Wyndham was an English science-fiction writer who examined the human struggle for survival when catastrophic natural phenomena suddenly invade a comfortable English setting. Educated in Derbyshire, Wyndham tried his hand at various jobs, from farming to advertising. During the mid-1920s he

automobile: Development of the gasoline car: Benz ran his first car in 1885, Daimler in 1886. Although there is no reason to believe that Benz had ever seen a motor vehicle before he made his own, he and Daimler had been preceded by Étienne Lenoir in France and Siegfried Marcus in Austria, in 1862 and…

automotive industry: Growth in Europe: …the merger of Daimler and Benz in 1926, after the founders of those firms had died (their bitter rivalry for the distinction of being the inventor of the gasoline automobile made any such union during their lifetimes unthinkable), and the entry of General Motors onto the German scene through the…

Bertha Benz was a German automotive pioneer who was instrumental in the development of the first engine-powered carriage, or automobile. She is best known for embarking on the world’s first long-distance drive in the Patent-Motorwagen, a car built by her husband, Karl Benz. Bertha Ringer was the

Karl Benz was a German mechanical engineer who designed and in 1885 built the world’s first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. (Read Henry Ford’s 1926 Britannica essay on mass production.) Although the original Benz car (a three-wheeled vehicle, the Motorwagen, now

Karl Benz was a German mechanical engineer who designed and in 1885 built the world’s first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. (Read Henry Ford’s 1926 Britannica essay on mass production.) Although the original Benz car (a three-wheeled vehicle, the Motorwagen, now

Karl Benz was a German mechanical engineer who designed and in 1885 built the world’s first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. (Read Henry Ford’s 1926 Britannica essay on mass production.) Although the original Benz car (a three-wheeled vehicle, the Motorwagen, now

hydrocarbon: Nomenclature: Benzo[a]pyrene, for example, is present in tobacco smoke and chimney soot and is formed when meat is cooked on barbecue grills.

Benten, (Japanese: Divinity of the Reasoning Faculty), in Japanese mythology, one of the Shichi-fuku-jin (Seven Gods of Luck); the Buddhist patron goddess of literature and music, of wealth, and of femininity. She is generally associated with the sea; many of her shrines are located near it, and

benzaldehyde (C6H5CHO), the simplest representative of the aromatic aldehydes, occurring naturally as the glycoside amygdalin. Prepared synthetically, it is used chiefly in the manufacture of dyes, cinnamic acid, and other organic compounds, and to some extent in perfumes and flavouring agents.

aldehyde: Addition of carbon nucleophiles: Benzaldehyde cyanohydrin (mandelonitrile) provides an interesting example of a chemical defense mechanism in the biological world. This substance is synthesized by millipedes (Apheloria corrugata) and stored in special glands. When a millipede is threatened, the cyanohydrin is secreted from its storage gland and undergoes enzyme-catalyzed dissociation to…

malachite green, triphenylmethane dye used medicinally in dilute solution as a local antiseptic. Malachite green is effective against fungi and gram-positive bacteria. In the fish-breeding industry it has been used to control the fungus Saprolegnia, a water mold that kills the eggs and young fry.

amphetamine: …sulfate, marketed under the name Benzedrine, a white powder with a slightly bitter, numbing taste. Dextroamphetamine sulfate, marketed under the name Dexedrine, is the more active of the two optically isomeric forms in which amphetamine exists. Other members of the amphetamine series include methamphetamine and benzphetamine.

biblical literature: Scandinavian versions: …another, with minor alterations by Eric Benzelius, in 1703. The altered Bible was called the Charles XII Bible because it was printed during the reign of Charles XII. In 1917 the diet of the Lutheran church published a completely fresh translation directly from modern critical editions of the Hebrew and…

benzene (C6H6), simplest organic, aromatic hydrocarbon and parent compound of numerous important aromatic compounds. Benzene is a colourless liquid with a characteristic odour and is primarily used in the production of polystyrene. It is highly toxic and is a known carcinogen; exposure to it may

resorcinol, phenolic compound used in the manufacture of resins, plastics, dyes, medicine, and numerous other organic chemical compounds. It is produced in large quantities by sulfonating benzene with fuming sulfuric acid and fusing the resulting benzenedisulfonic acid with caustic soda. Reaction

hydroquinone, colourless, crystalline organic compound formed by chemical reduction of benzoquinone. See

benzene hexachloride (BHC), any of several stereoisomers of 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexachlorocyclohexane formed by the light-induced addition of chlorine to benzene. One of these isomers is an insecticide called lindane, or Gammexane. Benzene hexachloride was first prepared in 1825; the insecticidal

hydrocarbon: Aromatic hydrocarbons: …All compounds that contain a benzene ring possess special stability and are classified as benzenoid aromatic compounds. Certain other compounds lack a benzene ring yet satisfy the criterion of special stability and are classified as nonbenzenoid aromatic compounds.

organosulfur compound: Thiols: …oxygen compound, as, for example, thiophenol (C6H5SH), also called benzenethiol.

hydrocarbon: Aromatic hydrocarbons: …stability and are classified as benzenoid aromatic compounds. Certain other compounds lack a benzene ring yet satisfy the criterion of special stability and are classified as nonbenzenoid aromatic compounds.

carbolic acid, simplest member of the phenol family of organic compounds. See

Seymour Benzer was an American molecular biologist who developed (1955) a method for determining the detailed structure of viral genes and coined the term cistron to denote functional subunits of genes. He also did much to elucidate the nature of genetic anomalies, called nonsense mutations, in

benzidine, an organic chemical belonging to the class of amines and used in making numerous dyestuffs. The azo dyes derived from benzidine are important because, unlike simpler classes of azo dyes, they become strongly fixed to cotton without a mordant. Benzidine is prepared from nitrobenzene by

heterocyclic compound: Five- and six-membered rings with two or more heteroatoms: Benzimidazole, for example, is the name for the compound:

fat and oil processing: Processes: …especially the various grades of petroleum benzin (commonly known as petroleum ether, commercial hexane, or heptane). In large-scale operations, solvent extraction is a more economical means of recovering oil than is mechanical pressing. In the United States and increasingly in Europe, there are many instances of simple petroleum benzin extraction…

hydrocarbon: Nomenclature: Benzo[a]pyrene, for example, is present in tobacco smoke and chimney soot and is formed when meat is cooked on barbecue grills.

food preservation: Organic chemical preservatives: Sodium benzoate and other benzoates are among the principal chemical preservatives. The use of benzoates in certain products in prescribed quantity (usually not exceeding 0.1 percent) is permitted in most countries, some of which require a declaration of its use on the label of the food container. Since free…

pharmaceutical industry: New classes of pharmaceuticals: …1900, when the synthetic compound benzocaine was introduced. Benzocaine was the first of many local anesthetics with similar chemical structures and led to the synthesis and introduction of a variety of compounds with more efficacy and less toxicity.

benzodiazepine, any of a class of therapeutic agents capable of producing a calming, sedative effect and used in the treatment of fear, anxiety, tension, agitation, and related states of mental disturbance. The benzodiazepines are among the most widely prescribed drugs in the world. The first

benzoic acid, a white, crystalline organic compound belonging to the family of carboxylic acids, widely used as a food preservative and in the manufacture of various cosmetics, dyes, plastics, and insect repellents. First described in the 16th century, benzoic acid exists in many plants; it makes

heterocyclic compound: Six-membered rings with one heteroatom: …formulas below are two isomeric benzopyridines (upper pair) and two isomeric dibenzopyridines (lower pair), with their common names and accepted numberings. All four compounds and some of their alkyl derivatives have been obtained from coal tar. Each of them is also the parent substance of a class of alkaloids. Of…

indole, a heterocyclic organic compound occurring in some flower oils, such as jasmine and orange blossom, in coal tar, and in fecal matter. It is used in perfumery and in making tryptophan, an essential amino acid, and indoleacetic acid (heteroauxin), a hormone that promotes the development of

heterocyclic compound: Six-membered rings with one heteroatom: The benzopyrylium cation is the parent of a large number of natural products. Chroman, or 3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran, is itself not found in nature, but the chroman unit is present in many natural products. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol), a substituted chroman, is found in plant oils and the leaves…

benzoquinone, simplest member of the quinone family of organic compounds; see

pharmaceutical industry: Emergence of modern diseases and treatment: , the discovery of thiazide diuretics. For decreasing death and disability from cancer, one very important step was the development of cancer chemotherapy.

chemistry of industrial polymers: Free-radical initiation: …initiator, benzoyl peroxide, can produce benzoyloxy radicals by cleaving at an oxygen-oxygen bond. The pair of benzoyloxy radicals thus produced may initiate a polymer chain, or they may break down further to yield carbon dioxide and yet a new initiator, a phenyl radical:

benzyl alcohol, an organic compound, of molecular formula C6H5CH2OH, that occurs combined with carboxylic acids (as esters) in balsams and oils of jasmine and other flowers. Several of its natural and synthetic esters have long been used in perfumery; the alcohol itself has become important in the

chemical compound: Substitution reactions: …example is the conversion of benzyl bromide to benzyl alcohol, using a solution of sodium hydroxide in water.

organohalogen compound: For the same reason, benzyl chloride (C6H5CH2Cl) is an alkyl halide, not an aryl halide, even though a benzene ring is present.

alcohol: Structure and classification of alcohols: …referred to as allylic or benzylic if the hydroxyl group is bonded to an allylic carbon atom (adjacent to a C=C double bond) or a benzylic carbon atom (next to a benzene ring), respectively.

magnoliid clade: Diversity of structure: …characterized by the presence of benzylisoquinoline or aporphine alkaloids, which are secondary metabolites with a defensive function and are rare in other groups. Only rarely do the magnoliids produce tanniferous substances, and betalains, iridoid compounds, or mustard oils are not evident. These different classes of defensive agents do, however, occur…

penicillin: The naturally occurring penicillins, penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) and penicillin V (phenoxymethylpenicillin), are still used clinically. Because of its poor stability in acid, much of penicillin G is broken down as it passes through the stomach; as a result of this characteristic, it must be given by intramuscular injection, which…

organohalogen compound: Reactions: …the ring to give a benzyne intermediate. In the second stage of the mechanism, a hydroxide ion and a proton add to the benzyne intermediate to give the product.

Bury Saint Edmunds, town (parish), St. Edmundsbury borough, administrative and historic county of Suffolk, eastern England, northwest of Ipswich on the River Lark. At Beodricesworth, as the town was first called, Sigebert, king of the East Angles, is said to have founded a monastery about 630; its

Belgrade, city, capital of Serbia. It lies at the confluence of the Danube and Sava rivers in the north-central part of the country. Belgrade is located at the convergence of three historically important routes of travel between Europe and the Balkans: an east-west route along the Danube River

Italian literature: Drama: …the mid-20th century the actor Angelo Beolco (“Il Ruzzante”) has become generally recognized as one of the most powerful dramatists of the 16th century. His works, often monologues written in a rural Paduan dialect, treat the problems of the oppressed peasant with realism and profound seriousness. Another dialect playwright of…

Beorhtric was the king of the West Saxons, or Wessex, succeeding Cynewulf. Beorhtric was a descendant of Cerdic, founder of Wessex, but his parentage is unknown. In his time the Danes first began invading England, landing in Dorset. Beorhtric was troubled by a rival to his crown, Egbert (his

United Kingdom: The decline of Mercia and the rise of Wessex: But in 825 Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia and then sent an army into Kent, with the result that he was accepted as king of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Essex. In that same year the East Angles threw off the Mercian yoke, killing Beornwulf. In 829 Egbert became ruler of…

Beothuk, North American Indian tribe of hunters and gatherers that resided on the island of Newfoundland; their language, Beothukan, may be related to Algonquian, but some authorities believe it to have been an independent language. When discovered by John Cabot in 1497 the tribe probably numbered

Canadian literature: The cosmopolitan culture of French Canada and Quebec: …La Saga des Béothuks (1996; The Beothuk Saga), chronicling the tragic fate of the Beothuk Indians of Newfoundland. Quebec and French Canadian writers have come to examine the implications of cultural diversity; a notable example is Montreal novelist Francine Noël’s Babel, prise deux; ou, nous avons tous découvert l’Amérique (1990;…

Beowulf: Editions and adaptations: Robert Zemeckis’s 2007 movie, a blend of animation and live action, was cowritten by Neil Gaiman and featured a cast that included Anthony Hopkins and Angelina Jolie. The poem also inspired the film Beowulf & Grendel (2005) and the TV movie Grendel (2007). Notable stage productions included…

Beowulf, heroic poem, the highest achievement of Old English literature and the earliest European vernacular epic. The work deals with events of the early 6th century, and, while the date of its composition is uncertain, some scholars believe that it was written in the 8th century. Although

Gerard Butler: …Lloyd Webber’s musical, and in Beowulf & Grendel (2005), a fantasy based on the epic poem Beowulf that was highlighted by Butler’s gritty but compassionate portrayal of the Norse hero.

English literature: The major manuscripts: The Beowulf manuscript (British Library) contains Beowulf, Judith, and three prose tracts; the Exeter Book (Exeter Cathedral) is a miscellaneous gathering of lyrics, riddles, didactic poems, and religious narratives; the Junius Manuscript (Bodleian Library, Oxford)—also called the Caedmon Manuscript, even though its

Mercury: Mariner 10, radar, and Messenger: … (JAXA) launched a Mercury mission, BepiColombo, that is scheduled to arrive at Mercury in 2025 and spend one year in orbit. The mission is named after Italian mathematician Giuseppe (“Bepi”) Colombo, who discovered that Mercury’s rotation period is two-thirds of its orbital period. The spacecraft has two parts: ESA’s Mercury…

Matthew Barney: …Barney began collaborating with composer Jonathan Bepler on the feature film River of Fundament (2014). Loosely based on Norman Mailer’s novel Ancient Evenings (1983), the work is an exploration of waste in all its forms, reincarnation, and car manufacturing. Like the Cremaster series, it includes a collection of related sculptures,…

Lord Byron: Byron in Italy: Beppo and Don Juan: He also wrote Beppo, a poem in ottava rima that satirically contrasts Italian and English manners in the story of a Venetian ménage à trois. Back in Venice, Margarita Cogni, a baker’s wife, replaced Segati as his mistress, and his descriptions of the vagaries of this “gentle tigress”…

Beppu, city, eastern Ōita ken (prefecture), northeastern Kyushu, Japan. It faces Beppu Bay on the east and lies just northwest of Ōita city. Beppu, located at the base of a steep symmetrical fan of coarse volcanic detritus, has been a major hot-springs resort since the late 19th century. After

Bekaa valley, broad valley of east-central Lebanon, extending in a northeast-southwest direction for 75 miles (120 km) along the Litani and Orontes rivers, between the Lebanon Mountains to the west and Anti-Lebanon Mountains to the east. The valley contains nearly half of Lebanon’s arable land but

Kosovo: The arts: …and early 21st centuries is Sokol Beqiri, whose works include provocative photography, video, and performance pieces.

legacy, in law, generally a gift of property by will or testament. The term is used to denote the disposition of either personal or real property in the event of death. In Anglo-American law, a legacy of an identified object, such as a particular piece of real estate, or a described object of

human ear: Audiometry: …more frequently used test is brain-stem-evoked response audiometry (BERA). In this test electrodes are pasted to the skin (one placed behind the ear) and are used to record the neural responses to brief tones. The minute potentials evoked by a train of brief sound stimuli are suitably amplified and averaged…

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

bhāīband, (“brotherhood”), important instrument of caste self-government in India; the bhāīband is the council formed by the heads of families that belong to the same lineage in a particular area, thus constituting an exogamous (those who do not intermarry) unit within the endogamous (those who do

Jean Berain, the Elder: His brother Claude Berain (d. 1726?) was an engraver to the king.

Jean Berain, the Elder was a French draftsman, engraver, painter, and designer who was called by his contemporaries the oracle of taste in all matters of decoration. Trained under the great French decorator Charles Le Brun, Berain was working at the Louvre when appointed, in 1674, royal designer to

Jean Berain, the Elder: His son Jean Berain the Younger (1678–1726), best known as an engraver, was his pupil and succeeded to his official functions. His brother Claude Berain (d. 1726?) was an engraver to the king.

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

Zeraʿim: …the first of which (Berakhot, “Blessings”) deals with public worship and private prayer. The other 10 tractates all deal with laws regarding agriculture and are called: Peʾa (“Corner”), Demai (“Dubiously Tithed Produce”), Kilayim (“Mixed Kinds”), Sheviʿit (“Seventh Year”), Terumot (“Heave Offerings”), Maʿaserot (“Tithes”), Maʿaser sheni (“Second Tithe”), Ḥalla (“Dough…

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

berakah, in Judaism, a benediction (expression of praise or thanks directed to God) that is recited at specific points of the synagogue liturgy, during private prayer, or on other occasions (e.g., before performing a commandment or for being spared from harm in the face of danger). Most berakoth

Josef Beran was the Roman Catholic archbishop of Prague (1946), made a cardinal in 1965. He was interned in 1949 by the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia after members of the clergy were forbidden to participate in political life. He was released in 1965 and left

Pierre-Jean de Béranger was a French poet and writer of popular songs, celebrated for his liberal and humanitarian views during a period when French society as a whole was undergoing rapid and sometimes violent change. Béranger was active in his father’s business enterprises until they failed. He

Berar, cotton-growing region, east-central Maharashtra state, western India. The region extends for approximately 200 miles (320 km) east-west along the Purna River basin and lies 700 to 1,600 feet (200 to 500 metres) above sea level. Berar is bounded on the north by the Gawilgarh Hills (Melghat)

Arthur Andersen: The Indictment: CEO Joseph Berardino immediately notified the SEC on finding out about the excessive document shredding, and he fired Duncan following the public uproar. Andersen’s response was considered inadequate given that three other major corporations for whom Andersen recently issued unqualified or clean audit opinions—Global Crossing, WorldCom,…

bottlenose whale: minimus) are commonly called giant bottlenose whales. (A genetic study of the gray and black forms of Baird’s beaked whale performed in 2016 revealed that the darker form was distinct enough from the gray form to be considered a unique species.) The two named species are the largest beaked…

bottlenose whale: Arnoux’s beaked whale (Berardius arnuxii), Baird’s beaked whale (B. bairdii), and the kurotsuchikujira (the black Baird’s beaked whale, B. minimus) are commonly called giant bottlenose whales. (A genetic study of the gray and black forms of Baird’s beaked whale performed in 2016 revealed that the…

beaked whale: Natural history: 7 feet) for the giant bottlenose whale (Berardius bairdii), these mammals weigh between 1,000 and 14,000 kg (2,200 and 31,000 pounds). Colour is variable but usually consists of some combination of gray or black with white. Their bodies are often covered with scars from fighting each other and from…

bottlenose whale: bairdii), and the kurotsuchikujira (the black Baird’s beaked whale, B. minimus) are commonly called giant bottlenose whales. (A genetic study of the gray and black forms of Baird’s beaked whale performed in 2016 revealed that the darker form was distinct enough from the gray form to be considered…

Berat, city, southern Albania. It lies along the Osum River, just west of Tomorr Peak (7,927 feet [2,416 metres]). The town is situated among steep hills cut through by the Osum. The terraced houses and several mosques and churches are surmounted by the ruins of a citadel. An oil field at Kuçovë

Berazategui, partido (county) at the southeastern limits of Gran (Greater) Buenos Aires, eastern Argentina, in Buenos Aires provincia (province). It lies along the Río de la Plata estuary. The county was created in October 1960 out of the existing county of Quilmes. Berazategui was originally the

Berber, any of the descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa. The Berbers live in scattered communities across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mali, Niger, and Mauritania. They speak various Amazigh languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic family related to ancient Egyptian.

Morocco: The pre-World War II period: …the French to issue the Berber Decree in 1930, which was a crude effort to divide Imazighen and Arabs. The result was just the opposite of French intentions; it provoked a Moroccan nationalist reaction and forced the administration to modify its proposals. In 1933 the nationalists initiated a new national…

Morocco: The pre-World War II period: …the French to issue the Berber Decree in 1930, which was a crude effort to divide Imazighen and Arabs. The result was just the opposite of French intentions; it provoked a Moroccan nationalist reaction and forced the administration to modify its proposals. In 1933 the nationalists initiated a new national…

Berber languages, family of languages in the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. As they are the most homogeneous division within Afro-Asiatic, the Berber languages have often been referred to as a single language in the past (especially in the tradition of French scholarship). Berber languages are