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Diagram showing energy flow in a food chain from a tree to a caterpillar, then to a bird, and finally to microbes, with red arrows illustrating energy transfer and heat loss at each stage.
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Diagram showing energy transfer through an ecosystem, with solar energy absorbed by plants (producers) at the base, then moving up to herbivores (primary consumers), small carnivores (secondary consumers), and large carnivores (tertiary consumers), while most energy is lost as heat at each step. A diagram of a generalized aquatic food web shows various marine organisms connected by arrows indicating predator-prey relationships. Top predators like large sharks, smaller sharks, and marlin are at the top, followed by predators such as tuna, squid, lancet fish, and mackerel. Filterers like lantern fish, amphipods, and ocean sunfish occupy the next level, with zooplankton such as shrimp, copepods, and pteropods below them. At the base, phytoplankton including dinoflagellates and diatoms prov ecological succession
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Diagram showing energy flow in a food chain from a tree to a caterpillar, then to a bird, and finally to microbes, with red arrows illustrating energy transfer and heat loss at each stage.
energy transfer and heat loss along a food chain

community ecology

Also known as: biocenology, biosociology, synecology
Written by
John N. Thompson
Professor, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Director, STEPS Institute for Innovation in Environmental Research, University of California, Santa Cruz. Author of Interaction and Coevolution...
John N. Thompson
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community ecology, study of the organization and functioning of communities, which are assemblages of interacting populations of the species living within a particular area or habitat.

As populations of species interact with one another, they form biological communities. The number of interacting species in these communities and the complexity of their relationships exemplify what is meant by the term “biodiversity.” Structures arise within communities as species interact, and food chains, food webs, guilds, and other interactive webs are created. These relationships change over evolutionary time as species reciprocally adapt to one another through the process of coevolution. The overall structure of biological communities, the organization of interspecific interactions, and the effects the coevolutionary process has on the biological community are described below.

Biotic elements of communities

Trophic pyramids and the flow of energy

Autotrophs and heterotrophs

A single mushroom grows from the base of a hollow tree trunk in a forest, surrounded by bark and green leaves in soft focus.
Do fungi need sunlight?What is food for a mushroom? That depends.
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All biological communities have a basic structure of interaction that forms a trophic pyramid. The trophic pyramid is made up of trophic levels, and food energy is passed from one level to the next along the food chain (see below Food chains and food webs). The base of the pyramid is composed of species called autotrophs, the primary producers of the ecosystem. They do not obtain energy and nutrients by eating other organisms. Instead, they harness solar energy by photosynthesis (photoautotrophs) or, more rarely, chemical energy by oxidation (chemoautotrophs) to make organic substances from inorganic ones. All other organisms in the ecosystem are consumers called heterotrophs, which either directly or indirectly depend on the producers for food energy.

Diagram showing energy transfer through an ecosystem, with solar energy absorbed by plants (producers) at the base, then moving up to herbivores (primary consumers), small carnivores (secondary consumers), and large carnivores (tertiary consumers), while most energy is lost as heat at each step.
ecosystem energy transferFigure 2: Transfer of energy through an ecosystem. At each trophic level only a small proportion of energy (approximately 10 percent) is transferred to the next level.

Within all biological communities, energy at each trophic level is lost in the form of heat (as much as 80 to 90 percent), as organisms expend energy for metabolic processes such as staying warm and digesting food (see biosphere: The flow of energy). The higher the organism is on the trophic pyramid, the less energy is available to it; herbivores and detritivores (primary consumers) have less available energy than plants, and the carnivores that feed on herbivores and detritivores (secondary consumers) and those that eat other carnivores (tertiary consumers) have the least amount of available energy.

The pyramid structure of communities

The organisms that make up the base level of the pyramid vary from community to community. In terrestrial communities, multicellular plants generally form the base of the pyramid, whereas in freshwater lakes a combination of multicellular plants and single-celled algae constitute the first trophic level. The trophic structure of the ocean is built on the plankton known as krill. There are some exceptions to this general plan. Many freshwater streams have detritus rather than living plants as their energy base. Detritus is composed of leaves and other plant parts that fall into the water from surrounding terrestrial communities. It is broken down by microorganisms, and the microorganism-rich detritus is eaten by aquatic invertebrates, which are in turn eaten by vertebrates.

Chutes d'Ekom - a waterfall on the Nkam river in the rainforest near Melong, in the western highlands of Cameroon in Africa.
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Ecosystems

The most unusual biological communities of all are those surrounding hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. These vents result from volcanic activity and the movement of continental plates that create cracks in the seafloor. Water seeps into the cracks, is heated by magma within Earth’s mantle, becomes laden with hydrogen sulfide, and then rises back to the ocean floor. Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (chemoautotrophs) thrive in the warm, sulfur-rich water surrounding these cracks. The bacteria use reduced sulfur as an energy source for the fixation of carbon dioxide. Unlike all other known biological communities on Earth, the energy that forms the base of these deep-sea communities comes from chemosynthesis rather than from photosynthesis; the ecosystem is thus supported by geothermal rather than solar energy.

Some species surrounding these vents feed on these bacteria, but other species have formed long-term, reciprocally beneficial relationships (mutualistic symbioses) with sulfur bacteria. These species harbour the chemoautotrophic bacteria within their bodies and derive nutrition directly from them. The biological communities surrounding these vents are so different from those in the rest of the ocean that since the 1980s, when biological research of these vents began, about 200 new species have been described, and there are many more that remain undescribed—i.e., not formally described and given scientific names. Among the described species there are at least 75 new genera, 15 new families, one new order, one new class, and even one new phylum.

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Food chains and food webs

A diagram of a generalized aquatic food web shows various marine organisms connected by arrows indicating predator-prey relationships. Top predators like large sharks, smaller sharks, and marlin are at the top, followed by predators such as tuna, squid, lancet fish, and mackerel. Filterers like lantern fish, amphipods, and ocean sunfish occupy the next level, with zooplankton such as shrimp, copepods, and pteropods below them. At the base, phytoplankton including dinoflagellates and diatoms prov
generalized aquatic food webFigure 1: Generalized aquatic food web. Parasites, among the most diverse species in the food web, are not shown.

Because all species are specialized in their diets, each trophic pyramid is made up of a series of interconnected feeding relationships called food chains. Most food chains consist of three or four trophic levels. A typical sequence may be plant, herbivore, carnivore, top carnivore; another sequence is plant, herbivore, parasite of the herbivore, and parasite of the parasite. Many herbivores, detritivores, carnivores, and parasites, however, eat more than one species, and a large number of animal species eat different foods at different stages of their life histories. In addition, many species eat both plants and animals and therefore feed at more than one trophic level. Consequently, food chains combine into highly complex food webs. Even a simplified food web can show a complicated network of trophic relationships.