Climate

Introduction
Solar radiation and temperature
- Solar radiation
  - Distribution of radiant energy from the Sun
  - Effects of the atmosphere
  - Average radiation budgets
  - Surface-energy budgets
- Temperature
  - Global variation of mean temperature
  - Diurnal, seasonal, and extreme temperatures
  - Variation with height
  - Circulation, currents, and ocean-atmosphere interaction
  - Short-term temperature changes
Atmospheric humidity and precipitation
- Atmospheric humidity
  - Humidity indexes
    - Absolute humidity
    - Specific humidity
    - Relative humidity
  - Relation between temperature and humidity
  - Humidity and climate
    - Average relative humidity
    - Evaporation and humidity
- Precipitation
  - Origin of precipitation in clouds
    - Cloud formation
    - Cloud types
    - Mechanisms of precipitation release
    - Showers, thunderstorms, and hail
  - Types of precipitation
    - Drizzle
    - Rain and freezing rain
    - Snow and sleet
    - Hail
  - World distribution of precipitation
    - Regional and latitudinal distribution
    - Amounts and variability
  - Effects of precipitation
    - Raindrop impact and soil erosion
    - Surface runoff
Atmospheric pressure and wind
- Atmospheric pressure
- Wind
  - Relationship of wind to pressure and governing forces
  - Cyclones and anticyclones
    - Extratropical cyclones
    - Anticyclones
    - Cyclone and anticyclone climatology
  - Local winds
    - Scale classes
    - Local wind systems
  - Zonal surface winds
- Monsoons
  - Diurnal variability
  - Intra-annual variability
  - Interannual variability
- Upper-level winds
  - Characteristics
  - Propagation and development of waves
  - Relationships to surface features
  - Jet streams
  - Winds in the stratosphere and mesosphere
Climate and the oceans
- The ocean surface and climate anomalies
- Formation of tropical cyclones
  - Conditions associated with cyclone formation
  - Effects of tropical cyclones on ocean waters
  - Influence on atmospheric circulation and rainfall
- Poleward transfer of heat
  - Thermohaline circulation
  - The Gulf Stream
  - The Kuroshio
- El Niño/Southern Oscillation and climatic change
  - The El Niño phenomenon
  - The Southern Oscillation
Climate and life
- The Gaia hypothesis
- The evolution of life and the atmosphere
- The role of the biosphere in the Earth-atmosphere system
  - The biosphere and Earth’s energy budget
  - The cycling of biogenic atmospheric gases
  - Biosphere controls on the structure of the atmosphere
  - Biosphere controls on the planetary boundary layer
  - Biosphere controls on maximum temperatures by evaporation and transpiration
  - Biosphere controls on minimum temperatures
  - Climate and changes in the albedo of the surface
  - The effect of vegetation patchiness on mesoscale climates
  - Biosphere controls on surface friction and localized winds
  - Biosphere impacts on precipitation processes
    - Cloud condensation nuclei
    - Biogenic ice nuclei
    - Recycled rainfall
- Climate, humans, and human affairs

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

World map with continents shaded in colors representing climate zones, from warm reds and yellows near the equator to cool blues and whites at the poles.

See how differing amounts of solar radiation at the poles and Equator affect Earth's climate and atmosphere

Diagram showing Earth's orbit around the Sun with labeled positions for the summer solstice, winter solstice, vernal equinox, and autumnal equinox, illustrating how Earth's tilt causes the seasons.

A flowchart diagram shows the average exchange of energy between Earth's surface, atmosphere, and space as percentages of incoming solar radiation, with arrows and labeled percentages illustrating how solar energy is absorbed, reflected, scattered, or emitted by clouds, the atmosphere, and the surface. Color-coded circles and boxes represent different forms of energy transfer, including solar radiation, longwave radiation, and non-radiative exchanges, highlighting the complexity of Earth's clima

A flowchart diagram shows the average exchange of energy between Earth's surface, atmosphere, and space as percentages of incoming solar radiation, with arrows and labeled percentages illustrating how solar energy is absorbed, reflected, scattered, or emitted by clouds, the atmosphere, and the surface. Color-coded circles and boxes represent different forms of energy transfer, including solar radiation, longwave radiation, and non-radiative exchanges, highlighting the complexity of Earth's clima

major surface currents of the oceans

Global distribution of mean annual evaporation (in centimetres).

Illustrated cross-section of the hydrologic cycle showing land, vegetation, and ocean, with arrows indicating water movement through precipitation, evaporation, runoff, infiltration, groundwater flow, and outflow. Numbers on arrows represent relative water fluxes, highlighting major processes such as precipitation on land and ocean, evaporation from land and ocean, surface runoff, infiltration to groundwater, and groundwater outflow to the ocean. Soil moisture and groundwater zones are color-cod

Follow water in its many forms, from glaciers and clouds to freshwater rivers and saltwater oceans

See how water transforms between liquid, ice, and vapour in the water cycle

At a Glance

default image

climate summary

Related Questions

Climate

meteorology

Written by

Joseph GentilliAll

Fact-checked by

Britannica Editors

Last updated

Nov. 11, 2026 •History

Climate, conditions of the atmosphere at a particular location over a long period of time; it is the long-term summation of the atmospheric elements (and their variations) that, over short time periods, constitute weather. These elements are solar radiation, temperature, humidity, precipitation (type, frequency, and amount), atmospheric pressure, and wind (speed and direction). From the ancient Greek origins of the word (klíma, “an inclination or slope”—e.g., of the Sun’s rays; a latitude zone of Earth;...

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