algorithm

algorithm, systematic procedure that produces—in a finite number of steps—the answer to a question or the solution of a problem. The name derives from the Latin translation, Algoritmi de numero Indorum, of the 9th-century Muslim mathematician al-Khwarizmi’s arithmetic treatise “Al-Khwarizmi Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning.”

For questions or problems with only a finite set of cases or values an algorithm always exists (at least in principle); it consists of a table of values of the answers. In general, it is not such a trivial procedure to answer questions or problems that have an infinite number of cases or values to consider, such as “Is the natural number (1, 2, 3,…) a prime?” or “What is the greatest common divisor of the natural numbers a and b?” The first of these questions belongs to a class called decidable; an algorithm that produces a yes or no answer is called a decision procedure. The second question belongs to a class called computable; an algorithm that leads to a specific number answer is called a computation procedure.

Algorithms exist for many such infinite classes of questions; Euclid’s Elements, published about 300 bce, contained one for finding the greatest common divisor of two natural numbers. Every elementary-school student is drilled in long division, which is an algorithm for the question “Upon dividing a natural number a by another natural number b, what are the quotient and the remainder?” Use of this computational procedure leads to the answer to the decidable question “Does b divide a?” (the answer is yes if the remainder is zero). Repeated application of these algorithms eventually produces the answer to the decidable question “Is a prime?” (the answer is no if a is divisible by any smaller natural number besides 1).

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Numbers and Mathematics

Sometimes an algorithm cannot exist for solving an infinite class of problems, particularly when some further restriction is made upon the accepted method. For instance, two problems from Euclid’s time requiring the use of only a compass and a straightedge (unmarked ruler)—trisecting an angle and constructing a square with an area equal to a given circle—were pursued for centuries before they were shown to be impossible. At the turn of the 20th century, the influential German mathematician David Hilbert proposed 23 problems for mathematicians to solve in the coming century. The second problem on his list asked for an investigation of the consistency of the axioms of arithmetic. Most mathematicians had little doubt of the eventual attainment of this goal until 1931, when the Austrian-born logician Kurt Gödel demonstrated the surprising result that there must exist arithmetic propositions (or questions) that cannot be proved or disproved. Essentially, any such proposition leads to a determination procedure that never ends (a condition known as the halting problem). In an unsuccessful effort to ascertain at least which propositions are unsolvable, the English mathematician and logician Alan Turing rigorously defined the loosely understood concept of an algorithm. Although Turing ended up proving that there must exist undecidable propositions, his description of the essential features of any general-purpose algorithm machine, or Turing machine, became the foundation of computer science. Today the issues of decidability and computability are central to the design of a computer program—a special type of algorithm.