Banisteriopsis caapi
What is Banisteriopsis caapi?
What controversy surrounded the patenting of Banisteriopsis caapi?
Is Banisteriopsis caapi hallucinogenic?
What role does Banisteriopsis caapi play in ayahuasca?
Banisteriopsis caapi, thick, climbing, woody vine (liana) of the Malpighiaceae family, native to tropical South America and widely associated with the rainforests of the Amazon basin. It is one of several plants used to make the hallucinogenic drink ayahuasca, which is an important traditional medicine of Indigenous South Americans. The vine is also commonly called ayahuasca, as well as several other names, including caapi, vegetal, and yagé. In the Quechuan languages of South American Indigenous peoples, aya means “spirit,” “soul,” or “dead,” and waskha means “vine” or “rope.” The common name of B. caapi thus translates to “vine of the soul,” or “vine of the dead.”
- Kingdom: Plantae
- Division: Angiosperm
- Order: Malpighiales
- Family: Malpighiaceae
- Genus: Banisteriopsis
Distribution and description
B. caapi grows on trees in the wet tropical biomes of Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Argentina. The vine, growing 30 meters (98 feet) long, has a smooth, brown bark. It is covered with green oval leaves arranged in opposite rows along its length. The leaves are hairless on the upper surface, 8–18 cm (3.2–7.1 inches) long, and 3.5–8 cm (1.4–3.2 inches) wide, with entire margins. B. caapi reproduces mainly by vegetative propagation. This is because the vine does not often flower and set seed.
In 1986 American entrepreneur Loren Miller patented Da Vine, a variety of Banisteriopsis caapi that he had collected from a domestic garden of an Ecuadorian Indigenous tribe. The patent was opposed by Amazonian Indigenous communities, who considered B. caapi a sacred plant used for generations in their spiritual and medicinal practices. In 1999 the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) challenged the patent before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) on behalf of the protesting Indigenous groups. CIEL argued that the plant was not new or meaningfully different from existing South American varieties to merit patenting.
The PTO rejected the patent for lack of novelty later that year but reinstated it in 2001 after considering Miller’s arguments, without further input from Indigenous groups. The patent ultimately expired on June 17, 2003, after a 17-year term. Because U.S. plant patents cannot be renewed, the patented variety permanently entered the public domain thereafter.
The act of patenting B. caapi is considered an example of biopiracy, which refers to the unauthorized and ethically questionable commercial use of a region’s biological resources without financially compensating the Indigenous or local communities who use those resources.
When B. caapi blooms, the flowers of the vine are white and pink, which fade to yellow with age. They grow in clusters at the ends of branches (terminal inflorescence) or at the junction of the leaves with the stem (axillary inflorescence). The flowers are 12–14 mm (0.5–0.6 inch) in diameter and barely 3 mm (0.12 inch) long. Each flower has 10 stamens. The fruits of B. caapi are samara nuts, which measure 5 mm (0.2 inch) in length and bear papery wings. The seeds are fan-shaped and green when young, turning brown upon reaching maturity.
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Phytochemistry and pharmacology: Banisteriopsis caapi’s role in ayahuasca
The hallucinogenic drink ayahuasca is made by mashing and boiling B. caapi stem and bark with the leaves of a plant that contains tryptamine alkaloids, usually N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). DMT-containing plants include chacruna (Psychotria viridis) or chagraponga (Diplopterys cabrerana). Other plants are sometimes added to the brew for their healing effects or other purposes. The plants are boiled for hours.
The chemical compound DMT is a hallucinogen. When taken orally, DMT is quickly metabolized by enzymes called monoamine oxidases in the digestive tract and liver before its psychoactive properties can affect the brain. To counter this action, B. caapi is included in the ayahuasca brew. The bark and other parts of B. caapi contain beta-carboline alkaloid derivatives, including harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine. Beta-carbolines are monoamine oxidase inhibitors. They block monoamine oxidase enzymes, which allows DMT to reach the brain through the bloodstream. Thus, the drinker of the ayahuasca brew can experience its psychoactive effects. The concentration of the beta-carboline alkaloid derivatives in B. caapi varies depending on the geographical variety of the vine used.
Laboratory and preclinical studies suggest that B. caapi extracts may have anxiolytic, antidepressant, and neuroprotective properties. However, utilizing the active compounds in these extracts in modern medicine requires further research.