The problem of double and concurrent income taxation by overlapping governmental authorities has become increasingly important, particularly in international law. The growth of international contacts has multiplied the possibility of an individual or corporation being taxed in several countries. Moreover, the expanding financial needs of states have led them to extend their powers of taxation, with the result that cases of double taxation are becoming increasingly frequent and serious.
International tax law has two parts. One consists of the provisions of internal tax law whereby national taxes are made applicable to nonresidents and to facts or situations located outside the frontiers. The other part has its source in the growing number of international agreements designed to prevent double taxation, either by defining the field of application of the tax laws of each of the contracting states or, without limiting the field of application, by providing for the granting of credits in each of the contracting states for taxes paid under the legislation of the other.
Nearly all the agreements aimed at preventing international double taxation are bilateral; that is, between two countries. Many bilateral conventions are intended not only to prevent double taxation but also to enable cooperation between the fiscal administrations of the contracting states in combating tax evasion.
Potential problems of internal double taxation exist in federal countries (including the United States, Switzerland, and Germany). A state legislature may, for example, tax all income arising in the state, whether received by residents or nonresidents, or all income received by residents, even when the source of income is located outside the state borders. Therefore, arrangements for interstate tax coordination may be made, similar to international conventions. Alternatively, a credit for the state tax may be allowed in calculating the federal tax paid on the same object. During the 1980s the “unitary” system used by some U.S. states to tax the whole income of multistate corporations created considerable animosity in other countries. These states employed a formula to apportion between themselves and the rest of the world the entire worldwide income of affiliated firms—one of which did business in the state—that as a group were deemed to be engaged in a unitary business. This system departed radically from standard international practice, which is based on separate accounting for the corporations chartered in each country. Bowing to pressure from foreign governments, the U.S. federal government, and the international business community, most states have abolished or restricted use of this method.
Special tax problems arise when countries are involved in economic integration with each other. When two or more countries form a customs union (free-trade zone), each member state keeps its own system of taxation. The aims of an economic union are more ambitious, entailing far-reaching limitations on the sovereignty of the member states; when countries decide to form an economically integrated area, as have the member countries of the European Union, they agree to establish a unified economic and financial market. In tax terms, this means the abolition of tax (and other) discriminations and distortions, on the basis that they are likely to impede or distort normal movements of goods and capital. To this end the sales and turnover taxes of the (then) European Communities were replaced with value-added taxes (VATs), which were “harmonized,” as provided in the Rome Treaty of March 1957; all member countries have had to bring their value-added taxes into conformity with a model prescribed by the organization.
Administration of tax laws
Whereas the right to impose taxes and to determine the circumstances under which they will be due is a privilege of the legislative power, administration of the tax law is the responsibility of the executive power. The head of tax administration in a central government is the minister of finance, secretary of the treasury, or chancellor of the exchequer. The actual administration is generally separated into departments because taxes differ so greatly in their bases and methods of collection. In most countries the ministry of finance has three branches charged with the levying of taxes. One collects income taxes; another levies taxes on the transfer of goods and on such legal transactions as stamp fees, inheritance taxes, registration dues, and turnover taxes; a third is responsible for customs and excise duties.
The levying of taxes can be divided into three successive phases: (1) assessment, or the definition of the exact amount subject to taxation under the statute; (2) computation or calculation; and (3) enforcement.
