The definition of the amount subject to taxation under a particular statute requires an analysis of the taxpayerâs situation and of the legal provisions that apply to him. With the income tax (and also some taxes on the transfer of property, such as the inheritance tax), the taxpayer submits a tax return providing information as to his occupation, his real and personal property, his professional expenditures, and other pertinent matters; a corporation supplies, additionally, copies of the balance sheet, profit and loss statement, and minutes of the general meeting that approved these financial reports. The return, with the attached reports and statements, is meant to provide such complete information that the assessing tax official can rely on it to compute the correct tax. In the United States, the income taxpayerâs liability is computed by himself subject to review by the taxing authority. Most tax systems also collect information in other ways, in order to inform the authorities as to potential tax liabilities. Records are kept of such matters as the allocation of income by partnerships, trusts, or estates, and the payment of fees, interest, dividends, and other sums exceeding a certain minimum amount. Particularly important are the statements of amounts paid as wages and salaries, which constitute the bulk of the income tax base for individuals in most countries; these are submitted as part of the withholding (pay-as-you-earn) system.
In the case of an annual levy such as the income tax, a return must be filed every year. In many countries, however, individuals who, on the basis of the return previously filed, appear to earn an income below the taxable limit do not have to file a new return annually (this facility is subject to revision at any time). Because it is not easy for some categories of taxpayers to determine the precise amount of their occupational net income, the tax administration frequently reaches an agreement with professional associations, fixing an estimated basis on which the net taxable income of their members will be determined for a period usually exceeding one year; members are then allowed to provide the tax administration with simplified factual information (e.g., for farmers the area of land cultivated, for butchers or bakers the amount of goods sold), instead of filing the standard return.
In many countries a separate assessment procedure has been organized for income from real property; such is the case in the various European countries in which the French system of land register (cadastre) was introduced at the end of the 18th century. The theoretical income of each piece of real property is then determined by the administration of the land register and remains fixed for a relatively long period, except when important changes are made in the property.
In examining tax returns, the basic principle is that a return is assumed to be correct until the assessing official determines otherwise. In countries such as the United States, where the self-assessment method prevails, a minority of returns is selected for audit; most, however, are only checked as to timely arrival, inclusion of all required forms and attachments, and arithmetical accuracy. Except in special circumstancesâwhen, for example, the statute introduces a suspicion of fraud (e.g., if no return has been filed) or creates certain presumptions (as when personal living expenses exceed the reported income)âthe administration has no right to shift onto the taxpayer the burden of the proof that he has complied with his liabilities. The golden rule of the tax administrator consists not only in getting as much money as possible for the treasury, but in displaying fairness. The rules of taxation naturally have an authoritarian character, but tax law does not grant the taxing authority a privileged position nor deprive the individual of means of defense against arbitrary taxation.
Assessing officials have extensive powers in determining the amount subject to taxation. In addition to the routine check, there are numerous sources of information. The return of one taxpayer can be checked against that of another: in some countries whenever an individual or a corporation includes within deductible expenses the interest paid on borrowed money or the fee paid to a professional expert, the return must show the name and address of the payee, and when this information is placed before the appropriate assessing official he can readily determine whether the payee has included the payment in his declared income. Similarly, in countries employing value-added taxes invoices can be cross-checked to be sure that tax claimed as a credit by a business purchaser has actually been remitted by the seller. This ability to cross-check is often said to be a major advantage of value-added tax over other forms of sales taxes, but the advantages are easily overstated, since even with sophisticated computers cross-checking is difficult.
The procedure varies from one country to another and depends largely on the circumstances of the case. An audit may be performed either in the office of the tax agent, by correspondence, or in the taxpayerâs office. Tax agents are entitled to examine the books and records kept by the taxpayer, within reasonable limits. They are, within the same limits, entitled to question not only the taxpayer but other persons acquainted with the case. There are, however, legal guarantees, protecting confidential communications and prohibiting disclosures of financial information about the taxpayer. In the United States, for example, federal and common law protect communications between husband and wife or between a client and his attorney acting as such. Under Belgian income-tax law, certain taxpayers, in the course of the assessing officialâs interrogation, may assert that they are bound by professional secrecy and unable to communicate what they claim to be privileged information; the assessing officer may then consult a special advisory board, composed of the president and two members of the taxpayerâs professional or occupational group (lawyers, doctors, notaries, etc.), which will give its opinion as to the taxpayerâs probable income.
Banks in most countries are required to make reports of cash deposits or similar transactions. In most countries, a safe-deposit box in a bank cannot be opened after the death of the client unless a tax official is present. On the other hand, some countries, such as Switzerland, Panama, and various nations in the Caribbean, have turned the guarantee of bank secrecy into a national asset. In such countries banks are legally entitled, or even required, to refuse information to tax agents concerning their clients. Funds from both legal and illegal activities are often channeled through countries with strict bank secrecy laws in order to escape taxation (as well as for other reasons).
Tax authorities do a great deal of intelligence work, using tips from informers such as employees, competitors, and neighbours of the taxpayer. In the United States, informers are encouraged by the payment of fees. But it is a fundamental principle of tax law that information cannot be used against the taxpayer if it has been obtained by unlawful means, and that no evidence or testimony is a valid proof of tax liability unless the taxpayer has had the opportunity to discuss it.
The assessor may find himself in disagreement with the taxpayer, either as to the facts (the amount of income, of deductible expenses, etc.) or as to the manner in which the taxpayer has resolved a question of law or a mixed question of law and fact. The tax agent may use his discretion as to questions of fact, and frequently a compromise is reached on those questions between the taxpayer and the tax agent.
Whenever the tax agent decides questions of law, he is bound by the treasuryâs position on the particular problem. On unresolved issues, lower taxation officers (field offices) usually request the advice of a higher echelon. Allowing lower-level fiscal authorities discretion in interpreting tax laws runs the risk of encouraging corruption. In some countries, including the United States, written rulings are issued by the administration in advance, thus avoiding disputes at the level of the assessment official. In countries in which this is not done, officials at all levels are free to give informal advice concerning the tax effects of proposed transactions. The taxpayer can file a petition with the competent administrative or judicial authority whenever he believes that the interpretation of the law by the assessing official is wrong.
