Interest in the ownership of securities has increased greatly in recent decades. Inflationary tendencies have directed attention to stocks as a means of offsetting rising prices. Stock exchanges have cultivated investors through public relations programs. Government regulation has strengthened public confidence in stock trading procedures. Many governments have given support to the capital markets in order to facilitate business financing.

In the United States, in addition to the millions of individuals who own shares of publicly held corporations, many others own shares indirectly through institutions that are large holders of stock, such as investment companies and pension funds. It is difficult to obtain figures for other countries. A major problem of developing countries has been the absence of investors able and willing to buy shares. Many investors in these countries have preferred to place their funds in tangible assets such as land.

Institutions such as insurance companies, mutual funds, pension funds, foundations, and universities have grown very important in the security markets of the United States. Because of their financial responsibilities to others, these institutions have characteristically followed conservative investment policies stressing the purchase of fixed-income securities. The long-term trend toward inflation, along with mounting stock prices, has led the institutions to look more favourably upon common stocks.

Among the most rapidly growing institutions are the mutual funds. Technically, these are known as open-end investment companies because the number of their shares outstanding constantly changes as new shares are sold to investors and old ones redeemed.

Over a long-term period, the movements of stock prices and of general business indicators tend to parallel each other. In studies of business cycles, it has been found that stock prices tend to reach their cyclical peaks and troughs somewhat ahead of general business indicators, and these are therefore generally classified as “leading indicators.”

The price of a stock reflects the present value of expected future earnings, and the profits of a firm are strongly influenced by the general level of economic activity. The tendency of stocks to lead business may be attributable to investors’ preoccupation with the future. Over the years, the trend of stock prices has been upward; since World War II the upward cycles has tended to be of longer duration, while declines have been relatively shorter. Within the generally expansionary movement, changes in share values of specific companies have been mixed, some showing striking long-term gains while others have suffered losses.

Dramatic events sometimes have a special influence on the psychology of investors, driving stock prices down despite improving business conditions. For example, between the fall of 1940 and the spring of 1942, the period immediately prior to and after the entry of the United States into World War II, U.S. stock prices dropped swiftly despite a continued revival of economic activity. In other cases the reasons for a fall in stock prices are not easy to discover.

Stock prices also experience daily changes of substantial size. Technical market analysts attempt to predict these changes by studying patterns in stock prices. Many theorists, however, claim that in a highly competitive market, prices fluctuate primarily as a result of new information that is not likely to appear in any organized fashion; they maintain that successive price movements are independent of each other and take place in a random fashion.

As investors’ expectations change over time, their attitudes toward different types of stock change. Buoyant investors lean toward growth stocks, the value of which is expected to increase rapidly; when uncertainty prevails, the preference is for more conservative issues with stable records of earnings. Within any given period, investors’ choices of particular stocks vary with their judgments of the related companies.

Glenn G. Munn, F.L. Garcia, and Charles J. Woelfel, Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance, 9th ed., rev. and expanded (also published as The St. James Encyclopedia of Banking & Finance, 1991), provides comprehensive definitions, many with bibliographies. Edward I. Altman and Mary Jane McKinney (eds.), Handbook of Financial Markets and Institutions, 6th ed. (1987), is a thorough compilation. Detailed information on a variety of markets is provided in Francis A. Lees and Maximo Eng, International Financial Markets: Development of the Present System and Future Prospects (1975), a descriptive treatment; Charles R. Geisst, A Guide to the Financial Markets, 2nd ed. (1989), for the general reader; Frank J. Fabozzi and Frank G. Zarb, Handbook of Financial Markets: Securities, Options, and Futures, 2nd ed. (1986); and Perry J. Kaufman, Handbook of Futures Markets: Commodity, Financial, Stock Index, and Options (1984), including the history, regulation, and mechanics of futures trading. Further discussion of financial futures is found in Mark J. Powers and Mark G. Castelino, Inside the Financial Futures Markets, 3rd ed. (1991), an explanation of the exchanges and their functions; and Nancy H. Rothstein and James M. Little (eds.), The Handbook of Financial Futures: A Guide for Investors and Professional Financial Managers (1984), a discussion of the market’s development, organization, and regulation.

The Spicer & Oppenheim Guide to Securities Markets Around the World (1988); and Paul Stonham, Major Stock Markets of Europe (1982), are good general surveys of world stock exchanges. Robert Sobel, N.Y.S.E.: A History of the New York Stock Exchange, 1935–1975 (1975), is a readable survey of this important exchange. See also Joel Seligman, The Transformation of Wall Street: A History of the Securities and Exchange Commission and Modern Corporate Finance (1982). Reference manuals include Richard J. Teweles and Edward S. Bradley, The Stock Market, 5th ed. (1987); and Frank G. Zarb and Gabriel T. Kerekes (eds.), The Stock Market Handbook (1970). William J. Baumol, The Stock Market and Economic Efficiency (1965), is an interesting effort to apply economic theory to the securities market. Arthur Stone Dewing, The Financial Policy of Corporations, 2 vol., 5th ed. (1953), is a classic treatise on financial policy, particularly useful for historical and statistical purposes. Hugh Bullock, The Story of Investment Companies (1959), recounts the development of mutual funds. Vincent P. Carosso, Investment Banking in America (1970), provides a relatively thorough history. John W. Hazard and Milton Christie, The Investment Business (1964), readably condenses the landmark U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission’s special study of the securities markets. Investment texts include Harry C. Sauvain, Investment Management, 4th ed. (1973); and Jerome B. Cohen, Edward D. Zinbarg, and Arthur Zeikel, Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management, 5th ed. (1987), a comprehensive work. Graham and Dodd’s Security Analysis, 5th ed. by Sidney Cottle, Roger F. Murray, and Frank E. Block (1988), is a classic work that led to the development of the field of security analysis. Richard W. Jennings, Harold Marsh, Jr., and John C. Coffee, Jr. (eds.), Securities Regulation, 7th ed. (1992), is a leading textbook dealing with the legal background of securities regulation. Louis Loss and Joel Seligman, Securities Regulation, 3rd ed. (1989– ), is a classic work kept up-to-date with supplements that delves into all aspects of the U.S. federal regulation of securities and securities markets.