security

security, in business economics, written evidence of ownership conferring the right to receive property not currently in possession of the holder. The most common types of securities are stocks and bonds, of which there are many particular kinds designed to meet specialized needs. This article deals mainly with the buying and selling of securities issued by private corporations. (The securities issued by governments are discussed in the article government economic policy.)

Corporations create two kinds of securities: bonds, representing debt, and stocks, representing ownership or equity interest in their operations. (In Great Britain, the term stock ordinarily refers to a loan, whereas the equity segment is called a share.)

The bond, as a debt instrument, represents the promise of a corporation to pay a fixed sum at a specified maturity date, and interest at regular intervals until then. Bonds may be registered in the names of designated parties, as payees, though more often, in order to facilitate handling, they are made payable to the “bearer.” The bondholder usually receives his interest by redeeming attached coupons.

Since it could be difficult for a corporation to pay all of its bonds at one time, it is common practice to pay them gradually through serial maturity dates or through a sinking fund, under which arrangement a specified portion of earnings is regularly set aside and applied to the retirement of the bonds. In addition, bonds frequently may be “called” at the option of the company, so that the corporation can take advantage of declining interest rates by selling new bonds at more favourable terms and using these funds to eliminate older outstanding issues. In order to guarantee the earnings of investors, however, bonds may be noncallable for a specified period, perhaps for five or 10 years, and their redemption price may be made equal to the face amount plus a “premium” amount that declines as the bond approaches its maturity date.

The principal type of bond is a mortgage bond, which represents a claim on specified real property. This protection ordinarily results in the holders’ receiving priority treatment in the event that financial difficulties lead to a reorganization. Another type is a collateral trust bond, in which the security consists of intangible property, usually stocks and bonds owned by the corporation. Railroads and other transportation companies sometimes finance the purchase of rolling stock with equipment obligations, in which the security is the rolling stock itself.

Although in the United States the term debentures ordinarily refers to relatively long-term unsecured obligations, in other countries it is used to describe any type of corporate obligation, and “bond” more often refers to loans issued by public authorities.

Corporations have developed hybrid obligations to meet varying circumstances. One of the most important of these is the convertible bond, which can be exchanged for common shares at specified prices that may gradually rise over time. Such a bond may be used as a financing device to obtain funds at a low interest rate during the initial stages of a project, when income is likely to be low, and encourage conversion of the debt to stock as earnings rise. A convertible bond may also prove appealing during periods of market uncertainty, when investors obtain the price protection afforded by the bond segment without materially sacrificing possible gains provided by the stock feature; if the price of such a bond momentarily falls below its common-stock equivalent, persons who seek to profit by differentials in equivalent securities will buy the undervalued bond and sell the overvalued stock, effecting delivery on the stock by borrowing the required number of shares (selling short) and eventually converting the bonds in order to obtain the shares to return to the lender.

Another of the hybrid types is the income bond, which has a fixed maturity but on which interest is paid only if it is earned. These bonds developed in the United States out of railroad reorganizations, when investors holding defaulted bonds were willing to accept an income obligation in exchange for their own securities because of its bond form; the issuer for his part was less vulnerable to the danger of another bankruptcy because interest on the new income bonds was contingent on earnings.

Still another hybrid form is the linked bond, in which the value of the principal, and sometimes the amount of interest as well, is linked to some standard of value such as commodity prices, a cost of living index, a foreign currency, or a combination of these. Although the principle of linkage is old, bonds of this sort received their major impetus during the inflationary periods after World Wars I and II. In recent years they have had the most use in countries in which the pressures of inflation have been sufficiently strong to deter investors from buying fixed-income obligations.