History and anthropology provide many examples of economies based neither on markets nor on commerce. An exchange of gifts between communities with different resources, for example, may resemble trade, particularly in diversifying consumption and encouraging specialization in production, but subjectively it has a different meaning. Honour lies in giving; receiving imposes a burden. There is competition to see who can show the most generosity, not who can make the biggest gain. Another kind of noncommercial exchange was the payment of tribute, or dues, to a political authority, which then distributed what it had collected. On this basis, great, complex, and wealthy civilizations have arisen in which commerce was almost entirely unknown: the network of supply and distribution was operated through the administrative system. Herodotus remarked that the Persians had no marketplaces.
The distinguishing characteristic of commerce is that goods are offered not as a duty or for prestige or out of neighbourly kindness but in order to acquire purchasing power. It is clearly a convenience to all parties to have a single generally established currency-commodity. Once a commodity is acceptable as money, its use to store purchasing power overshadows its use for its original purpose; it ceases to be a commodity like any other and becomes the very embodiment of value.
Markets as centres of commerce seem to have had three separate points of origin. The first was in rural fairs. A typical cultivator fed his family and paid the landlord and the moneylender from his chief crop. He had sidelines that provided salable products, and he had needs that he could not satisfy at home. It was then convenient for him to go to a market where many could meet to sell and buy.
The second point was in service to the landlords. Rent, essentially, was paid in grain; even when it was translated into money, sales of grain were necessary to supply the cultivator with funds to meet his dues. Payment of rent was a one-way transaction, imposed by the landlord. In turn, the landlord used the rents to maintain his warriors, clients, and artisans, and this led to the growth of towns as centres of trade and production. An urban class developed with a standard of life enabling its members to cater to each other as well as to the landlords and officials.
The third, and most influential, origin of markets was in international trade. From early times, merchant adventurers (the Phoenicians, the Arabs) risked their lives and their capital in carrying the products of one region to another. The importance of international trade for the development of the market system was precisely that it was carried on by third parties. Within a settled country, commercial dealings were restrained by considerations of rights, obligations, and proper behaviour. In medieval Europe, for example, dealings were regulated in the main by the concept of the âjust price,â that is, a system of valuations that assured the producers and merchants an income sufficient to maintain life at a level suited to their respective positions in society. But in trade in which the dealer is not subject to any obligation at either end, no holds are barred; purely commercial principles have free play. It was in trade (for instance, the export of English wool to the weavers of Italy) that the commercial principle undermined feudal conceptions of rights and duties. As Adam Smith observed, a great leap occurred when trade released the forces of industrial production.
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Throughout history the relations between the trader and the producer have changed with the development of technique and with changes in the economic power of the parties. The 19th century was the heyday of the importâexport merchant. Traders from a metropolitan country could establish themselves in a foreign centre, become experts on its needs and possibilities, and deal with a great variety of producers and customers, on a relatively small scale with each. With the growth of giant corporations, the scope of the merchant narrowed; his functions were largely taken over by the sales departments of the industrial concerns. Nowadays it is common to hold international fairs at which industrial products are displayed for inspection by customers, a grand and glorified version of the village market; the business, however, consists in placing orders rather than buying on the spot and carrying merchandise home. The function of the independent wholesaler, like that of the merchant, has declined as great retail businesses have grown to a scale whereby they can deal directly with manufacturers; but specialized exchanges for primary commodities are still important.
