A wage is a price, and the rise of the general level of wages or rates of pay in the course of time has, to some extent, been part of the long-term rise in the general level of all prices—that is, of the cumulative depreciation of the purchasing power of money, largely attributable to increases in its quantity. In another way, however, the movements of rates of pay have been an independent cause of the rising trend of prices. At times those rates rose in common with prices under the pull of monetary demand (in times of inflation, during war, or in the rising phase of the trade cycle), but when the demand fell off they were resistant to cuts; and though they were cut somewhat, they commonly remained at a higher level than when the preceding rise began. A graph of product prices shows big falls as well as big rises, and sometimes a falling trend persisting for many years together; but a graph of money wage rates is more like a flight of steps. This characteristic of wage movements puts a floor under prices and provides a higher starting point for the next upward movement, so that the fluctuations of monetary demand impose a rising trend on prices. In addition, the analysis of cost inflation under full employment, noted above, has shown that when employers generally expect demand to be sustained, rises in pay may occur in the absence of excess demand, thereby initiating rises in prices; and it is possible that the same process may have played some part in the rising phase of the trade cycles of earlier years.

The rise of real earnings may be traced by comparing the movements of earnings in money with those of an index number of the prices of the articles on which pay is typically expended. Such comparisons indicate that between 1860 and 1960 the real earnings of manual workers rose fourfold in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom; more than fivefold in the United States; and more than sevenfold in Sweden. In considering the standard of living attendant on these movements, it is necessary also to take account of the prevailing reduction in the size of the family, the complex effects of urbanization on the amenities of life, the effects of changed techniques and deployment between occupations on the strains and satisfactions experienced in work, and the reduction of hours of work. The last element has been extensive: it appears that down to World War II the wage earners of the five countries mentioned, save the United States, gave up from a third to a half of the potential increase in annual purchasing power in favour of a shorter working week and longer vacations.

To the extent that real earnings are measured simply by the quantity of consumables that money earnings will buy, their rise has depended on three factors: productivity, or the output per worker in terms of his own product; the share of this product that accrues to the worker; and the rate of exchange between the worker’s own product and the goods and services he buys. In the industrialized countries, the last factor has presented itself largely in the form of the terms of trade between manufactured products and primary products, especially foodstuffs: real earnings have risen faster or slower according as a representative consignment of manufacturers may be exchanged, at the prices of the day, for a greater or smaller quantity of foodstuffs and raw materials. There have also been variations from time to time in the second factor: the share of the product accruing to the worker. The effect of the last two factors, however, has been small in comparison with that of the first, the rise of productivity. The salient finding from the statistical record of the last hundred years is that real earnings per worker have risen very nearly in the same proportion as output per worker.

Surveys of the field of labour economics include Henry Phelps Brown, The Economics of Labor (1962); Malcolm R. Fisher, The Economic Analysis of Labour (1971); John T. Addison and W. Stanley Siebert, The Market for Labor: An Analytical Treatment (1979); Ingrid H. Rima, Labor Markets, Wages, and Employment (1981); Lloyd G. Reynolds, Stanley H. Masters, and Colletta H. Moser, Labor Economics and Labor Relations, 9th ed. (1986); Daniel S. Hamermesh and Albert Rees, The Economics of Work and Pay, 4th ed. (1988); Howard M. Wachtel, Labor and the Economy, 2nd ed. (1988); and Campbell R. McConnell and Stanley L. Brue, Contemporary Labor Economics, 2nd ed. (1989).

Clarence D. Long, The Labor Force Under Changing Income and Employment (1958), outlines the relation of the labour force to the population of a number of countries. Education is treated as a form of investment in Gary S. Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education, 2nd ed. (1975, reprinted 1983). Racial, sexual, and age discrimination in employment is explored in Robert C. Smith, Equal Employment Opportunity (1982); E. Robert Livernash (ed.), Comparable Worth: Issues and Alternatives, 2nd ed. (1984); and Harish C. Jain and Peter J. Sloane, Equal Employment Issues: Race and Sex Discrimination in the United States, Canada, and Britain (1981).

For studies of the impact of collective bargaining, see Lloyd G. Reynolds and Cynthia H. Taft, The Evolution of Wage Structure (1956, reprinted 1970); and John T. Dunlop (ed.), The Theory of Wage Determination (1957, reprinted 1986). Theories of collective bargaining are surveyed in Alan Coddington, Theories of the Bargaining Process (1968); see also Richard E. Walton and Robert B. McKersie, A Behavioral Theory of Labor Negotiations: An Analysis of a Social Interaction System (1965); Harold M. Levinson, Determining Forces in Collective Wage Bargaining (1966); John G. Kilgour, Preventive Labor Relations (1981); Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (1986); and Richard B. Freeman and James L. Medoff, What Do Unions Do? (1984).

For studies of wage structures and their determinants, see E.M. Hugh-Jones (ed.), Wage-Structure in Theory and Practice (1966); Clark Kerr, Labor Markets and Wage Determination (1977); Guy Routh, Occupation and Pay in Great Britain, 1906–79, 2nd ed. (1980); Henry Phelps Brown, The Inequality of Pay (1977), and Egalitarianism and the Generation of Inequality (1988). Theories of differences in the rates of pay for different jobs are developed in Barbara Wootton, The Social Foundations of Wage Policy: A Study of Contemporary British Wage and Salary Structure, 2nd ed. (1962); and Harold Lydall, The Structure of Earnings (1968). The movement of the general level of pay, in money and real terms, is recorded and analyzed in Henry Phelps Brown and Margaret H. Browne, A Century of Pay: The Course of Pay and Production in France, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America, 1860–1960 (1968). Work and its compensation are discussed also in Elliott Jaques, Free Enterprise, Fair Employment (1982); John W. Wright, The American Almanac of Jobs and Salaries, 3rd ed. (1987); Felicity Skidmore (ed.), Social Security Financing (1981); Simon Rottenberg (ed.), The Economics of Legal Minimum Wages (1981); and James E. Meade, Wage-Fixing (1982).