The debate over the appropriate role for workers in organizational decision making is part of a larger debate over the extent of the firmâs responsibilities to its community and society. This debate has been going on since the days of the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution brought about great accumulations of wealth and also focused public attention on the apparent negative effects of rapid industrialization on working people. To what extent workers in the new factories were worse off than they had been in the much smaller-scale cottage industries may be a matter of continuing debate, but there is no question that large concentrations of workersâmen, women, and childrenâcrowded together in factories and working long hours for low pay made health and social problems much more publicly visible. In earlier employment settings, such as the domestic system, the exchanges between workers, owners, and agents were usually based on personal relationships. The establishment of large factories destroyed those direct relationships, giving owners less opportunity to establish a personal interest in workers.
In the past two centuries managers of industry have taken, in general, two broadly different positions regarding managementâs social responsibilities: one is marked by minimal involvement in the lives of workers, while the other entails involvement with workers both on and off the job.
The first stance represents a combination of laissez-faire economic theory and the Protestant ethic as described by Weber. In this view the owner or manager has responsibility for the welfare of the workers only within the immediate plant situation. Coupled with this was the understanding that the firmâs labour costs are the result of competitive market conditions. In this view, then, the ownerâs or managerâs responsibility to his employees begins and ends with operating the firm in such an efficient manner that it can compete in the marketplace and create opportunities for workers. Furthermore, if all business managers follow a similar policy of intelligent self-interest, the broad social interests of society would be better served than by any other means.
This managerial style has changed significantly over the years; today one hardly expects business leaders to state their position with religious overtones, and even the executive most inclined toward a laissez-faire viewpoint is likely to concede that there are some social problems that are not resolved by the pursuit of enlightened self-interest.
The other stance begins with the assumption that management has a social responsibility to the communities in which its plants are located. If one states the situation in this general way, hardly a management spokesperson today would deny this social responsibility. Yet, when one gets beyond rhetoric, one finds a wide variety of views as to what actionsâif anyâmanagement should take. In assessing the present scene, one might do well to examine the historical evolution of conceptions of managementâs social responsibilities.
In the early part of the 19th century, the Welsh industrialist and social reformer Robert Owen was the first manufacturer to back up words about managementâs social responsibilities with a program of action. Having risen out of the work force in a textile mill himself, he was concerned with the social and economic conditions of workers and believed that the economic success of an enterprise did not have to depend upon exploitation of labourers. In the mill town of New Lanarkshire, Scot., Owen built workersâ housing, schools, and a store that were far superior to contemporary standards for workersâ communities. His philosophy was influential in the development of the cooperative movement in England.
Owenâs ideas and the successful operation of his plant and community during his lifetime impressed many social reformers and the business community as well. His influence was clearly visible in the establishment of the industrial city of Lowell, Mass. Francis Cabot Lowell had visited England and Scotland to study textile mills and related community problems before launching his own enterprises in Massachusetts. He had found New Lanark far more in harmony with American ideals regarding the dignity of the individual than was the average English industrial plant of the time. Lowell faced a social problem of an immediate practical nature: he had to recruit a labour force, largely female, not available in the towns where he was building his plants. To meet this need, the firm built, in what came to be the city of Lowell, a number of boardinghouses especially for young women. Each house was under the control of a woman who was supposed to ensure the morality of her charges, and the young women were not allowed out of the house after 10 pm except with special permission. In addition, Lowell provided for the building of schools and churches. He and his associates also gave stimulus to the Middlesex Mechanics Association, which sponsored cultural and educational programs. In the United States Lowell was the longest-lived project of its kind and the one most admired by foreign visitors. Charles Dickens compared Lowell very favourably with the typical English industrial city.
"A Classification of Workmen at Pullman," an 1890 report by Pullman, Illinois, town manager Duane Doty to railcar manufacturer George M. Pullman, who founded the town to house his employees; in the Newberry Library, Chicago.
The Newberry Library, Gift of the Pullman Company, 1969
Later in the century George M. Pullman fostered the construction of a community near the Pullman Palace Car Company (the town of Pullman, now part of Chicago) that would house all the employees and provide for all the essential facilities. In the early period of the Pullman Company, the quality of worker housing was notably superior to that of most other industrial workers. Yet another example could be found in Hershey, Pa., a site Milton S. Hershey chose in 1903 for a chocolate factory that evolved into a company town.
Similarly noteworthy were the paternalistic steps Henry Ford took to help workers make good use of their increasing affluence. Ford Motor Company instituted a small legal department to help workers with the complicated problem of home buying, and then Ford established what he called a sociology department. It was staffed with social workers who made home visits to workersâ families to provide advice and help on family problems. Members of the department were also free to talk with workers within the plant during working hours in efforts to straighten out family problems.
Company towns and the associated paternalistic view of the employment relation are still important in Japan and some other countries. A classic example is âToyota City,â which provides housing and community services to Toyota employees.
Yet company towns have also been centres of controversy. They have been the locus of some of the most bitter strikes in the United Statesâfrom Pullman in 1894, through the Southern mill towns in the 1930s, to Kohler, Wis., in the 1950s. Whatever grievances workers have had in these situations, it is clear that economic issues do not offer a complete explanation of the bitterness of the disputes, in part because any grievance a resident may have is seen to be the fault of the company.
