corporate governance, rules and practices by which companies are governed or run. Corporate governance is important because it refers to the governance of what is arguably the most important institution of the capitalist economy.
Johnston Birchall, a British professor in social policy, argued that it is useful to focus on three main issues when considering how organizations are governed. The first issue concerns which individuals or groups are provided with membership rights. Membership rights might be given only to one class of people. The shareholder system of corporate governance is probably the most prominent example of this approach within the corporate realm. In these organizations, membership rights are provided only to those who supply financial capital to the firm. Membership rights might alternatively be provided to more than one class of people or groups. In the corporate arena, these bodies are usually said to have a stakeholder system of corporate governance. Alongside shareholders, typical stakeholders include employees, members of the local population, representatives from supplier firms, customers, and local government.
Second, it is valuable to examine the content of the rights provided to members. Two broad sets of rights are of significance here. On one hand, it is useful to focus on the precise character of the rights members enjoy over governance. For example, do members only have a right to be consulted about the direction of corporate policy or are they allowed to make decisions alongside managers? On the other hand, it is important to examine the rights over the surplus generated by the organization. Not-for-profit companies do not permit any part of the surplus to be distributed to members. For-profit firms are allowed to distribute the surplus to members, usually in the form of dividend payments.
Third, it is useful to study the modes of representation available to members. Direct representation might be used to represent membersâ interests. Members might vote directly for a representative on the board of governors. Indirect representation occurs when organizations are used to represent members. For instance, a consumer council might be used to represent the views of customers. Proxy representation occurs when a self-appointed board is used to represent the stakeholder constituency.
In liberal models of capitalism, such as Great Britain and the United States, shareholder governance is the dominant company form. On this model, companies exist to serve the interests of shareholders. Shareholders are deemed to be the owners of a firm, which means that they are supposed to enjoy rights over governance as well as the surplus generated from the firm. One prominent justification for shareholder ownership resides in risk-based considerations. This argument insists that having an efficient allocation of risk within a firm is essential for overall efficiency. The argument continues that shareholders are better placed at absorbing risk than other stakeholders. By holding a diverse portfolio of shares in different companies, shareholders can spread the risks associated with a specific company (such as the risks associated with capital investment projects) in ways unavailable to other stakeholders. Gaining an efficient allocation of risk implies that shareholders should be charged with handling risk. Shareholder ownership guarantees that shareholders become the bearers of the risk of a firm.
Shareholders are not a homogenous body of individuals but instead exhibit different characteristics. From a governance perspective, one important difference is that between institutional and noninstitutional shareholders. The former refers to financial bodiesâsuch as pension fundsâthat purchase shares in companies. Financial institutions often display a concentrated pattern of shareholder ownership, owning substantial amounts of shares within a particular company. Noninstitutional shareholders are individuals such as members of the public or staff who buy shares in companies. Noninstitutional investors typically hold small amounts of shares. Share ownership among noninstitutional investors tends to be dispersed among a wide range of individuals.
In the 1930s Adolf Berle and Gardiner Means, the authors of the influential book The Modern Corporation and Private Property, argued that the nature of the rights that shareholders enjoyed changed importantly during the early stages of the 20th century. In particular, during the 19th century those who supplied financial capital to a firm also tended to be those who ran the firmâs operations. Berle and Means argued that this tradition of owner management changed as firms grew during the 20th century. Ownership lost control as those individuals who were thought to be owners were no longer the same people as those who ran the operations of the company. Shareholders delegated decision making to a set of managers who were supposed to act in the best interests of shareholders.
Although there are grounds for believing that the nature of ownership changed during the opening stages of the 20th century, it is arguable whether this signifies the divorce of ownership from control. The principal reason for this is that control rights are perhaps properly seen as part of ownership so what transpired was not the splintering off of control from the concept of ownership, but rather a change in the relationship between different components of ownership (relating particularly to rights over surplus and control). Nevertheless, important changes in the nature of shareholder ownership did seem to occur, whether or not it is accurate to refer to this as a separation of ownership from control.
For many observers, this change gives rise to the key issue of corporate governanceânamely, how to ensure that managers act in the best interests of shareholders. In particular, managers and shareholders are assumed to value different things. It is usually thought that shareholders want to maximize profits while managers seek simply to satisfy their personal goals. The argument continues that as executives are responsible for the daily operations of firms, they will pursue their private goals rather than the goals of the shareholders. In the literature on shareholder governance, much attention is devoted to trying to resolve this agency problem. For some scholars, the key is to have a well-functioning market for corporate control. In this view, the threat of takeover from a different firm puts pressure on an incumbent set of managers to maximize profits. If executives are not maximizing profits, then the firm will be subject to a takeover bid from a firm that sees an opportunity to make money. The bidding firm could replace the incumbent directors with a new set of managers that will maximize profits. For some, the mere threat of a takeover is enough to ensure that managers maximize profits.
Other scholars are more skeptical about the value of this market discipline. Critics, for example, allege that takeover activity is motivated not necessarily by a desire to maximize profits (and so meet shareholder objectives) but also by other considerations (for instance, to maximize the size of a firm). An alternative to relying on the market for corporate control is to focus on the internal governance of companies. Emphasis is placed on encouraging more active shareholder involvement in the firm. One possibility is to grant shareholders the legal right to vote at annual general meetings on the pay packages of executives. Such reforms seek to address shareholder disquiet at cases in which managers have awarded themselves large pay increases, even though this has not gone alongside improved corporate performance.
The attempt to encourage shareholders to monitor managers more actively raises the issue of what sort of representation is available for shareholders. Shareholders might be allowed to elect a representative on the committees that help set executive pay. Differences between shareholders may be important for the nature of any proposed institutional change. It is probably easier to motivate those with concentrated shareholdings to monitor managers than those who hold small amounts of shares. Concentrated shareholding is less prone to the free-rider problem, in which a shareholder seeks to benefit from the companyâs success without bearing any significant risk in case of failure. This means that institutional shareholders might be better placed than small investors as monitoring managers.
