The coinage of Switzerland illustrates its varying fortunes. First there was the gold money of the Merovingian kings, among whose mints were Basel, Lausanne, Saint-Maurice-en-Valais, and Sitten (Sion). The silver deniers that Charlemagne made the coinage of the empire were issued by fewer mints. The dukes of Swabia began to strike at ZĂŒrich in the 10th century, and the empire from the 10th to the 13th century granted the right of coinage to various ecclesiastical foundations. Bern was allowed a mint by the emperor Frederick II in 1218, and other towns and seigneurs subsequently gained the same right. The demi-bracteate appeared about the middle of the 11th century, and about 1125 it was superseded by the true bracteate, which lasted until about 1300. (Bracteates were lightweight silver coins so thin that they bore only a single type, repoussĂ© [hammered into relief on the reverse], for which a special technique [including the use of wooden dies] was devised.) The Swiss Confederation developed in the 14th century, and by degrees the cantons struck their own money. These, together with the coins of some few sees and abbacies, formed the bulk of Swiss money of the medieval and modern periods. The cantonal coinage, interrupted by the French occupation, was suppressed in 1848, when a uniform currency was adopted.
At the close of the Carolingian period the coinage of Italy fell into two main classes. In nearly all of the north, including Rome, it consisted of silver deniers of Carolingian derivation, mainly struck at Pavia, Milan, Lucca, and Verona. At Venice and over most of the south the dual influences of the Byzantine and Arab empires were prominent. Monetary fashions were shown in the coinage of Sicily struck by the Normans. Robert Guiscard in 1075â85 struck small gold coins called taris of almost wholly Arabic appearance, together with bronze of Byzantine style. Roger I of Sicily Latinized the bronze, and Roger II coined silver ducats of Byzantine type; Arab-style gold taris still continued for commercial reasons, since the great FÄáčimid coinage was then the currency of all western Muslims. After southern Italy and Sicily had fallen to German power, Frederick II (1212â50) restored a Latin coinage of gold, of splendid style and execution and good fineness, in proto-Renaissance style. His gold augustale (patterned after the aureus) and their halves, struck about 1231 at Brindisi and Messina, were accompanied by billon deniers. Sicily soon passed to Charles I of Anjou (1266â85), and its Angevin coinage, like that of Naples, assumed the French medieval style, succeeded in turn by that of the Aragonese kings.
In northern Italy leading cities were issuing silver with a free choice of typesâportraits, badges, or figures of patron saints and others, with explanatory legends. Mantua celebrated Virgil; Florence from about 1189 showed its lily with St. John the Baptist; and Genoa chose the janua, or eponymous gate. Venice, abandoning the imperial name early in the 12th century, set a precedent about 1192 in the issue of the larger silver grosso or matapan, using the henceforth familiar types of Christ on the reverse and, obverse, St. Mark presenting the gonfalon (the banner of the republic) to the doge. The influence of the gold coinage of Frederick II on such cities was soon evident. Genoa was striking gold as early as 1252. Florence issued the first of its famous and profuse series of fiorini dâoro, or gold florins. The lily continued as the civic type, together with the standing figure of the Baptist. Regular weight (about 3.50 grams, 54 grains) and fineness won the fiorino universal fame and wide imitation; double florins were introduced in 1504. Venice in 1284 produced its gold ducat, or zecchino (sequin), of the same weight. Venetian ducats rivaled Florentine florins in commercial influence and were widely copied abroad. The series begun under Giovanni Dandolo continued with the names of the successive doges until the early 19th century.
At Rome no papal coins appeared from 984 until purely epigraphic types recorded the names of Leo IX and the emperor Henry III in 1049â54. Thereafter, there was a further gap until Urban V (1362â70). The Senate of Rome coined silver deniers from 1188, with the antique legend Senatus Populus Q.R. and figures of SS. Peter and Paul. In 1252 Brancaleone struck deniers with the seated figure of Rome and the legend Roma Caput Mundi; Charles of Anjou in the 13th century and Cola di Rienzo in the 14th also coined, as Roman senator and tribune, respectively. Senatorial gold ducats were introduced on the Venetian model in 1350. Papal coinage returned from Avignon in 1367 with Urban V, who assumed rights over the mint of Rome; gold, silver, and bronze later developed, with types (crossed keys, tiara, personal arms, and many different emblems) that, with few interruptions, have lasted ever since. Since 1869 papal coinage has been mainly of a commemorative nature, in silver, acmonital (stainless steel), and bronze, of denominations corresponding with the Italian state coinage.
The patronage given by the popes to notable artistsâe.g., Francia and Benvenuto Celliniâresulted in a fine and often lavish standard of design in their coins and medals. Similar patronage was shown by the noble houses of Ferrara, Mantua, Milan, and elsewhere, whose coinages from the 15th century attained a splendid level. The size of gold and silver denominations was growing, as witness the silver teston of 1472; and the portraits made by Caradosso, Francia, and others of equal fame are among the finest small-scale Renaissance works. Later coins of still larger size of the duchies of Savoy and Florence are remarkable. Italian coinage continued to be divided among a number of kingdoms, principalities, and duchies until 1861, when Victor Emmanuel I first coined as king of all Italy. The metals were gold, silver, and bronze; alloys were introduced under Umberto I (1878â1900). Under Victor Emmanuel III (1900â46) reverse types borrowed heavily from the antique, and his later issues reflected the influence of the Fascist regime, being dated by the Fascist era from 1936 (year XIV) as well as by the Christian. From that same year, he appeared as emperor (of Ethiopia) as well as king of Italy, and after 1939 coins were struck for him, with a helmeted portrait, as king of Albania. After World War II the republican coinage of Italy, in aluminum and steel, concentrated mainly on symbols of agricultural fertility and national industry.
