Territorially, the German issues began and developed in an area that has since been many times divided and from which Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia have emerged as separate states. Classification of these issues remains one of the most formidable numismatic problems.
From the 10th to the 12th century the Carolingian pattern of coinage was continued; but with the advent of the Swabians under Conrad III in 1138, unity disappeared. In the west the silver denier continued. In the east the coinage of very thin bracteates was developed. The western deniers were in part from imperial mints, scattered among a much larger number of feudal mints, representing ecclesiastical rather than lay authorities. Westphalia produced a profuse ecclesiastical coinage. That of Cologne was especially important, showing the former Carolingian “temple” combined with the linear inscription S(ancta) Colonia A(grippinensis); and that of Münster was comparable in influence. This area was conservative and prosperous; the weight of its deniers was well maintained, and, although Anglo-Saxon and, later, English and Byzantine influences became noticeable, its types changed but little.
In the eastern region a sharp decline in weight led to the thin, single-type bracteates, and the designs quickly broke away from Carolingian tradition. Issued by a wide variety of authorities, many of them ecclesiastical, these coins showed a great range of human figures and portraits (saintly and secular) together with representations of churches, castles, and heraldic devices in an essentially medieval Germanic style. The difference between the heavier western deniers and the lighter eastern bracteates was perhaps partly responsible for the emergence of the Mark. This weight of solid silver, the mass of which varied from one time and area to another, stood at about 2 3 of the gold pound, which equaled 240 western silver deniers.
Transition from medieval to modern coinage took place with the emperor Louis IV of Bavaria (1314–47), who introduced gold and multiplied the silver grossus already issued by Cologne under Henry VII (1308–13). Louis reduced the number of purely imperial mints. Many others operated by rights granted to the nobility, the churches, and certain municipalities, and from these henceforth appeared the bulk of German coinage, including from 1520 the large silver thalers (so called from the Joachimsthal mines in Bohemia and from which derived the word dollar). In the 16th and 17th centuries the thalers and their multiples, of handsome and even ornate appearance, dominated the silver currency of Germany. Thalers of Saxony and Brunswick are especially well known. The thaler continued as a unitary denomination to the 19th century in Germany proper, but in 1870 German adherence to the gold standard caused its abandonment. From 1870 the kings of Prussia as emperors coined for all Germany; henceforth, the innumerable local variations in coinage were subsumed under the gold Reichsmark of 100 pfennigs, the silver standard being abandoned. After World War I the rulers of German states abdicated or were deposed, and everywhere the value of the Mark declined to zero, its place being momentarily taken by inflated paper currencies. Silver was coined mainly for commemorative pieces between World Wars I and II, including the Hindenburg portrait pieces; zinc, aluminum, and alloys furnished the wartime currency of 1939–45. After 1948 the coins of West Germany were inscribed Bundesrepublik Deutschland; those of East Germany, Deutschland alone (with emblems of industry and fertility).
In Austria there was a ducal silver coinage in the 11th century. It remained crude until the 14th century, when Albert II (1330–58) introduced a gold florin of Florentine character. The gros appeared with Frederick III (1440–93): thereafter, development was parallel with that of Germany, with thalers taking a prominent place. Those with the portrait of Maria Theresa acquired wide popularity on either side of the Red Sea. They continued to be coined in large numbers at Vienna and London, with the date 1780, for circulation in those regions: 24,000,000 were struck in 1940–41 from British mints alone.
John of Luxembourg, 14th-century silver denier of John as count of Luxembourg; in the British Museum.
Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum
The Bohemian ducal coinage of deniers from the 10th to the 12th century showed Byzantine, Scandinavian, and even English influences; by the 12th century the Prague mint was developing its own style. Wenceslas II first produced the gros in 1300, and John of Luxembourg (1310–46) the first gold florins, with, obverse, crown and, reverse, rampant lion. The regal coinage of Hungary began with the deniers of Stephen I (St. Stephen; 1000–38), and the style remained crude until Charles I (1310–42) introduced a lily-bearing gold florin and a silver gros modeled on those of Naples and Rome.
With the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1848, the coinage of the two countries, including Bohemia, was unified. During 1857–68 the coinage conformed to the terms of a monetary convention with Germany. The coins of Austria and Hungary were differentiated from 1868: the former were inscribed in German or Latin, and the latter in Magyar. Since 1923 the republican coinage of Austria has been conspicuous for its commemorative silver coins. That of Hungary, under the regency of Adm. Miklós Horthy, emphasized the crown of St. Stephen; under Soviet domination types symbolized revolution, peace, fertility, and industry, together with architectural motifs for silver.
Czechoslovak coinage from its inception in 1918 had shown the lion of Bohemia; special coinages have commemorated St. Wenceslas (in gold) and Tomáš Masaryk and—after the Soviet occupation of 1968—Stalin (in silver). Yugoslavia, similarly an offshoot of Austria-Hungary, has a currency based on paras and dinars. That of Albania, until its domination by the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, drew heavily on classical Greek types.
Ethelred II, coin, 10th century; in the British Museum.
Peter Clayton
The origin of Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish coinages is clearly the result of the Danish conquest of England. The Runic alphabet was employed, though not by any means exclusively, on many early coins of Denmark and Norway. The Norwegian series began with Haakon the Great (c. 970–995), who copied the pennies of Ethelred II. In the second half of the 11th century, a coinage of small, thin pennies began, which developed into bracteates. Magnus VI (1263–80) restored the coinage, more or less imitating the English sterlings of the time.
Sweyn I, coin, 10th century; in the Royal Collection of Coins and Medals, Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen.
The National Museum of Denmark, Department of Ethnography
The money of Denmark began with pennies of Sweyn I (c. 987–1014), also copied from the coinage of Ethelred II; the coins of Canute (Cnut) the Great (1016–35) and Hardecanute (Harthacnut; reign extended to England in 1040–42) were mainly English in character.
Sweyn II, coin, 11th century; in the Royal Collection of Coins and Medals, National Museum, Copenhagen.
The National Museum of Denmark, Department of Ethnography
With Magnus I (reign extended to Denmark in 1042–47) other influences, especially Byzantine, appeared, and the latter was very strong under Sweyn II Estridsen (1047–74). Bracteates came in during the second half of the 12th century. The coinage is very difficult to classify until the time of Eric of Pomerania (1397). There were important episcopal coinages at Roskilde and Lund in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Sweden had very few early coins; Swedish coinage began with imitations by Olaf Skötkonung (995) of English pennies and included the usual bracteate coinage. The money was restored by Albert of Mecklenburg (1364–89). The thaler was introduced by Sten Sture the Younger (1512–20). The money of Gustav II Adolf (1611–32) is historically interesting. Under Charles XII (1697–1718) there was highly curious money of necessity (i.e., a coinage struck to fulfill a need, usually in time of war and siege, but with inadequate technical means available). The small copper daler was struck, sometimes plated; types included Roman divinities. During the 17th and 18th centuries there was a large issue of enormous plates of copper, stamped with their full value in silver money as a countermark.
Modern Norwegian coinage, like that of Denmark, is remarkable in including certain denominations pierced with a central hole. That of Sweden has included some large commemorative pieces of silver. In Denmark the Copenhagen mint has produced a colonial coinage for Greenland. Iceland, formerly joined with the Danish crown, has struck republican coins since 1944.
