Title IX

Title IX is a clause of the 1972 Federal Education Amendments, signed into law on June 23, 1972, which states that “no person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” In 2002, following the death of its coauthor, U.S. Rep. Patsy Takemoto Mink, Title IX was officially renamed the Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act.

The term discrimination as used in Title IX applies to sexual harassment, assault, or abuse as well as to professional mistreatment. In 2020 the first administration of Republican Pres. Donald Trump (2017–21) added regulations to Title IX that allowed persons accused of sexual misconduct to subject their accusers to in-person hearings and cross-examinations. In 2024 the administration of Democratic Pres. Joe Biden removed those rules while broadening the scope of Title IX by prohibiting discrimination against and harassment of students based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The expansion of Title IX was soon stayed in federal courts and later vacated. In 2026 the second Trump administration formally rejected the Biden-era version of Title IX and reinstated its earlier reading of sexual discrimination, though it did not include an explicit definition of that term.

Although Title IX applies to a variety of programs, it has received the most attention for its impact on athletics, especially at the collegiate level. An amendment introduced in 1974 to exclude income-generating sports from Title IX coverage was rejected, and it was followed by like-minded amendments in 1975 and 1977, both of which also failed. In 1975 provisions that specifically prohibited sex discrimination in athletics and provided educational institutions with three years to fulfill the requirements of Title IX were signed into law. Attempts to curtail Title IX enforcement continued into 1978, but the following year the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) issued a final interpretation of Title IX’s effect on intercollegiate athletics, in which HEW mandated that educational institutions provide equal opportunity to men and women in athletic programs. Upon its establishment in 1980, the Department of Education was given the responsibility of overseeing compliance with Title IX through its Office for Civil Rights.

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Opponents of Title IX achieved a short-lived victory in the 1984 lawsuit Grove City v. Bell, the decision of which stated that Title IX affected only those programs that directly receive federal assistance; this eliminated the clause’s applicability to athletics programs. In 1988, however, the Civil Rights Restoration Act overrode Grove City v. Bell, stating that Title IX applied to all programs and activities of any educational institution receiving federal financial assistance. Beginning in 1996, under the terms of the 1994 Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, all coeducational colleges and universities participating in federal student financial aid programs were required to submit annual reports with information about their intercollegiate athletics programs to determine Title IX compliance.

Failure of educational institutions to comply with Title IX legislation led to various lawsuits, culminating in the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992). The court ruled unanimously that punitive damages should be awarded to plaintiffs when it can be proved that an institution intentionally evaded compliance with Title IX. According to the Title IX clause, each college and university must have a ratio of male-to-female athletes that is equal to its ratio of male-to-female students, but a school is still in compliance with Title IX if it has a proven record of expansion in an effort to reach the correct ratios.

In 2026, the Supreme Court ruled that neither Title IX nor the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits states from limiting membership in girls’ or women’s sports teams in public schools to persons identified as biologically female at birth. See West Virginia v. B.P.J.