Rhodesian Bush War

Rhodesian Bush War, the war (c. 1965–79) in Rhodesia—a self-declared country without international recognition, now Zimbabwe—in Southern Africa that began between the forces of the white minority-led government and two Black nationalist insurgent groups, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Prior to the conflict, the territory that became Zimbabwe was a British colonial holding. The war was precipitated by the white minority-led government’s resistance to British overtures to provide for independence with Black majority rule, which led to its Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain in 1965. After more than a decade of fighting, negotiations in 1979 led to the Lancaster House Agreement, which saw a ceasefire come into effect and a temporary return to British colonial administration. Free elections were held in 1980, which ushered in independence with majority rule under Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwe African National Union-PF (ZANU-PF) political party.

The span of the war is not universally agreed upon. Mugabe, in the article he wrote for the 1982 Britannica Book of the Year (Events of 1981), noted that ZANU considered the 1966 Battle of Sinoia (April 28) to be the beginning of the war. Others look further back to early and sporadic insurgent activity in 1964, before the UDI, or to 1965, the year of the UDI (November 11) itself. In contrast, some discount the 1960s dates and consider the start to be 1972, when the ZANLA insurgency began a new, more intense level of guerrilla fighting. The war’s end is primarily held to be in December 1979, tied to the provisions of the Lancaster House Agreement signed that month. Fewer sources place the end of the war in 1980, the year the successful transition from British colony to independent Zimbabwe concluded.

Background

In 1889 Queen Victoria granted the British South Africa Company (BSAC) a mandate to colonize the area that would become Zimbabwe, beginning the era of European settlement there. From 1896 to 1897, the region experienced what would come to be known as the First Chimurenga, a period of uprisings by the Indigenous Ndebele and Shona people against colonial policies. While the British prevailed over the rebels, the uprising laid the foundations for African nationalism.

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In preparation for the end of BSAC administration, in 1922 the European minority was given the choice of the territory joining the neighboring Union of South Africa or becoming a British colony with internal self-rule. It elected for self-rule, ushering in a period of increasingly discriminatory policies that forced many Indigenous people into servitude. During the following decades, opposition to white minority rule mounted, culminating in the creation of nationalist organizations advocating for Black majority rule, including the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU).

In 1953 Great Britain combined Southern Rhodesia with Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi) into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which lasted until the end of 1963. The federation’s dissolution and British efforts to institute majority rule caused resentment among the ruling white minority in Southern Rhodesia. The self-governing nature of that colony presented an issue for Britain, with the colony’s leadership, including Prime Minister Ian Smith, advocating for independence under a constitution that had been adopted in 1961 and was designed to ensure white domination. Smith’s Rhodesia Front party triumphed in an election held in May 1965, and he continued to pursue Rhodesian independence with the British government.

After several failed discussions with Britain, Smith issued Rhodesia’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) on November 11, 1965. ZANU and ZAPU quickly responded by declaring separate breakaway governments and calling for Britain to use force to suspend the Smith government. Britain deemed the UDI illegal but did not take any military action to counter it or regain control over its colony. Instead, the British government used financial tactics, and the United Nations imposed sanctions on Rhodesia. With the exception of a few regional actors—primarily Portugal, the colonial power in neighboring Mozambique, and the white minority government of South Africa—the UDI was met with widespread international condemnation and sanctions. However, with the regional support, Rhodesia was able to weather the economic impact of sanctions, at least initially. ZANU and ZAPU prepared for insurgency.

Major combatants

The three major belligerents in the Rhodesian Bush War were the Rhodesian security forces, ZANLA, and ZIPRA. The Rhodesian security forces, which consisted of both Black and white Rhodesians, were composed mainly of the army, air force, and the “British South Africa Police,” the police force in Rhodesia, named for the BSAC under which it was created in the late 19th century. The insurgent armies were created by the main nationalist political parties: ZAPU founded ZIPRA, while ZANU created ZANLA as its military wing.

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ZIPRA consisted primarily of Ndebele people and was armed and trained by the USSR. ZANLA received Chinese support and was composed of the Shona people. Both insurgent groups were provided light arms by their foreign backers and received limited armored vehicles. Meanwhile, the Rhodesian military employed a variety of weapons, aircraft, and armored vehicles.

Engagements and course of the military conflict

The early stage of the conflict began in the mid-1960s with incursions against rural white farmers and energy facilities, as well as an urban bombing campaign. These attacks were often met by retaliatory operations that saw the insurgents suffer significant casualties. The Battle of Sinoia, on April 28, 1966—often cited as the first engagement of the war—was representative of the early clashes: A group of ZANLA guerrillas who had infiltrated from Zambia were detected and killed by Rhodesian security forces. Rhodesia easily gained the upper hand during this stage of the conflict. Its forces, which were already at an advantage because of their better training and equipment, focused on defending the border with Zambia, increasing intelligence gathering, and making adaptations to their equipment as needed. Rhodesia also received covert support from the white-minority government of South Africa. By the end of the decade, the insurgents had returned to their camps in Zambia and Tanzania, where they and their allies focused on training and gathered strength.

The early 1970s saw the tide of the conflict shift, with many analysts pinpointing 1972 as the beginning of the second stage of the war. ZANLA became more formidable, having success with pursuing Maoist guerrilla warfare tactics, establishing operations in rural areas, and working to persuade the African populace to support its cause. Rhodesia’s position further deteriorated when FRELIMO, a liberation movement in the neighboring Portuguese colony of Mozambique, won control of some border territory in the colony and established joint bases with ZANLA there, creating a new front for launching attacks into Rhodesia; this front expanded once FRELIMO had complete control of Mozambique in 1975. ZANLA was also able to attract new recruits and greatly increase its numbers. In response to this increased pressure, Rhodesia launched numerous raids targeting cross-border training camps. These raids, such as Operation Eland in August 1976 and the largest raid of the war, Operation Dingo in 1977, achieved tactical success.

To counteract the increasing popularity of the insurgents, from 1974 Rhodesia attempted to relocate African civilians into “Protected Villages” (PVs), ostensibly for their own security as well as to cut off their contact with the guerrilla fighters. However, the restrictive PVs were greatly disliked by the population. The insurgents continued to focus on raids but also engaged in more extensive operations and terror tactics, such as ZIPRA’s shooting down of civilian airliners in 1978 and ’79. In response, the government clamped down heavily on dissent and implemented martial law in 1978, which also alienated civilians.

Diplomacy and the end of the war

As the conflict escalated and with years of sanctions taking a toll, Rhodesia appeared more receptive to diplomatic pressure to end the war. There were several failed mediation attempts in the 1970s. One such effort was the Geneva Conference in 1976. It was spearheaded by the United States and Britain and was an attempt to mediate a solution between the Rhodesian government and Black nationalist leaders. Although the conference ended without the parties reaching an agreement, it was significant for being the first time that the Smith government met to negotiate with all four prominent nationalist leaders: Mugabe (representing his branch of ZANU), Dr. Joshua Nkomo (ZAPU), Bishop Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa (African National Council), and Rev. Ndabaningi Sithole (representing his branch of ZANU). It also had prompted the creation of a new nationalist partnership: Right before the conference opened, Mugabe and Nkomo formed the Patriotic Front (PF), a temporary alliance between their two groups, in order to present a united front and strengthen their positions in such negotiations.

After the failed negotiations, the economy continued to worsen, fighting intensified, and Rhodesia was still pressured to come to some sort of compromise with the country’s Black majority. To that end, the Smith government and Muzorewa, Sithole, and other moderate nationalist leaders signed an agreement known as the Internal Settlement in March 1978. The agreement, which excluded some aspects of previous international proposals that Rhodesia had found unfavorable, also bypassed the PF leaders and their considerable support base. The Internal Settlement was not considered ideal by the nationalist signatories, who nonetheless accepted it since it provided for a new constitution and a shift toward majority rule. In the April 1979 elections held under the agreement, Muzorewa’s party won a majority, making him the first prime minister of the newly declared Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. But power had not truly shifted to the Black majority, with the white minority maintaining a hold on important government positions per the terms of the new constitution. As such, Muzorewa’s new government did not gain international recognition (beyond South Africa). International sanctions persisted, and PF’s ZANLA and ZIPRA insurgents continued their liberation war.

An end to the conflict appeared in sight when British-led negotiations in London, from September to December 1979, yielded the Lancaster House Agreement between the de facto government of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and the PF leaders, Mugabe and Nkomo. Among the agreement’s provisions, the PF leaders agreed to a ceasefire, and Rhodesia temporarily reverted to a colony under British administration for a transitional period until a freely elected government was in place. Elections, which took place in February 1980, ushered in complete Black majority rule under Mugabe and his ZANU-PF (with the name recently changed to reflect the group’s connection to the Patriotic Front and its role in the liberation struggle). Mugabe became the first prime minister of an independent Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980.