Bowers v. Hardwick

Bowers v. Hardwick, legal case, decided on June 30, 1986, in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld (5–4) a Georgia state law banning sodomy. The ruling was overturned by the court 17 years later in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), which struck down a Texas state law that had criminalized homosexual sex between consenting adults.

Background

The case arose on August 3, 1982, when a police officer who had been admitted to the home of Michael Hardwick in Atlanta witnessed him and a male companion in a bedroom engaging in sex. The officer had been executing a warrant for Hardwick’s arrest for failing to appear in court on a charge of public drinking (it was later determined that the warrant was invalid because Hardwick had already paid the $50 fine). The officer promptly arrested both men for violating Georgia’s antisodomy statute.

Although the district attorney decided not to prosecute Hardwick or his companion, Hardwick filed suit in federal district court against the Atlanta police commissioner and Georgia’s attorney general, Michael J. Bowers, alleging that the antisodomy law placed Hardwick, a noncelibate homosexual, in imminent danger of arrest and that it violated his constitutional right to privacy. Hardwick also argued that the law and his arrest had had a chilling effect on the relationship of a pseudonymous heterosexual married couple (the law applied to heterosexual as well as homosexual sodomy), John and Mary Doe, and that it violated the couple’s right to privacy in their marital relations, which the Supreme Court had recognized in Griswold v. State of Connecticut (1965). The district court dismissed the suit, in part on the basis of the Supreme Court’s summary (without comment) affirmance (1976) of Doe v. Commonwealth’s Attorney for the City of Richmond (1975), in which a district court in Virginia had upheld a state law prohibiting sodomy. The Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit reversed the Georgia district court’s decision, holding that the antisodomy statute violated Hardwick’s right to privacy under the Ninth Amendment (which protects fundamental rights not enumerated in the first eight amendments) and under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (which prohibits the states from depriving “any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law”). It further held that the Supreme Court’s affirmance of Doe was not controlling, because it had been undermined by later decisions of the court. It remanded the case for retrial, instructing the district court to apply strict scrutiny (the most demanding form of judicial review), which would have required Bowers to demonstrate that the antisodomy law served a compelling state interest and that it was the most narrowly tailored means of achieving that end. Rather than go through a second trial, however, Bowers filed a petition for certiorari with the Supreme Court, which was granted on November 4, 1985, in view of conflicting decisions in similar cases by other appellate courts. Oral arguments were held on March 31, 1986.

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Majority opinion

In his opinion for the majority (5–4), Justice Byron R. White noted that the 11th Circuit had affirmed the district court’s finding that the heterosexual plaintiffs, John and Mary Doe, lacked standing to sue, because “they had neither sustained, nor were in immediate danger of sustaining, any direct injury from the enforcement” of the antisodomy law. “The only claim properly before the Court,” he concluded, “is Hardwick’s challenge to the Georgia statute as applied to consensual homosexual sodomy.” Accordingly, the court did not rule on the constitutionality of the law as applied to acts of sodomy by heterosexuals.

White’s opinion was notable for its narrow formulation of the central issue of the case. In contrast to the 11th Circuit, which had addressed the question of whether the antisodomy law violated Hardwick’s right to privacy, White asserted that “the issue presented is whether the Federal Constitution confers a fundamental right upon homosexuals to engage in sodomy.” He likewise narrowly construed the scope of several previous Supreme Court decisions that the 11th Circuit had regarded as establishing a right to privacy that would encompass acts of consensual sodomy, whether homosexual or heterosexual. In contrast to the present case, he argued, those decisions had concerned privacy in the context of child rearing and education, family relationships, procreation, marriage, contraception, and abortion. He thus rejected the 11th Circuit’s finding, declaring that “no connection between family, marriage, or procreation, on the one hand, and homosexual activity, on the other, has been demonstrated.” “Moreover,” he added, “any claim that these cases nevertheless stand for the proposition that any kind of private sexual conduct between consenting adults is constitutionally insulated from state proscription is unsupportable.”

Nor could it be argued that “a fundamental right to engage in homosexual sodomy” is supported by the due process clause of the Fifth or the Fourteenth Amendment, he held. Such rights that the court has chosen to recognize on this basis, including those that have “little or no textual support in the constitutional language,” are either “implicit in the concept of ordered liberty” (Palko v. Connecticut [1937]) or “deeply rooted in this Nation’s history and tradition” (Moore v. East Cleveland [1977]). But neither of those formulations is applicable to a presumed right to engage in homosexual sodomy; indeed, to claim otherwise “is, at best, facetious.”

Because Georgia’s antisodomy law did not, in his view, infringe on a fundamental right, it did not require review by strict scrutiny but only by the “rational basis” test, whereby a law that does not implicate a fundamental right or a suspect classification of persons (e.g., by race or gender) is constitutional if it is rationally related to a legitimate government purpose. White held that such a rational basis was adequately provided by “the presumed belief of a majority of the electorate in Georgia that homosexual sodomy is immoral and unacceptable.” He thus reversed the 11th Circuit’s decision, holding that the antisodomy law was constitutional.

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White’s opinion was joined by Chief Justice Warren Burger and by Justices Sandra Day O’Connor, Lewis F. Powell, Jr., and William Rehnquist. Burger also wrote a concurring opinion in which he declared that recognizing a fundamental right to engage in homosexual sodomy would “cast aside millennia of moral teaching.” Powell, who had originally joined a 5–4 majority in favour of Hardwick but later changed his mind, suggested in his own concurrence that the antisodomy law, which imposed a penalty of up to 20 years’ imprisonment for a single violation, could have been struck down on Eighth Amendment grounds (as a form of cruel and unusual punishment) had that issue been raised in the case. (In 1990, after he had retired from the bench, Powell stated publicly that his vote in the case had probably been a “mistake.”)

Dissenting opinions

In his dissenting opinion, Justice Harry A. Blackmun accused the majority of badly distorting the central issue of the case (as well as those of the relevant precedents) by focusing on overt behaviour, particularly “homosexual activity,” rather than on underlying principles. Citing two such precedents, he declared: “This case is no more about ‘a fundamental right to engage in homosexual sodomy’…than Stanley v. Georgia [1969]…was about a fundamental right to watch obscene movies, or Katz v. United States [1967]…was about a fundamental right to place interstate bets from a telephone booth.” “Rather,” he added (quoting Louis Brandeis’s dissent in the Supreme Court’s decision in Olmstead v. United States [1928]), “this case is about ‘the most comprehensive of rights and the right most valued by civilized men,’ namely, ‘the right to be let alone.’” Accordingly, the majority’s decision did not merely “refuse to recognize a fundamental right to engage in homosexual sodomy; what the Court really has refused to recognize is the fundamental interest all individuals have in controlling the nature of their intimate associations with others.” His opinion was joined by Justices William Brennan, Thurgood Marshall, and John Paul Stevens. Stevens also issued a dissenting opinion, which was joined by Brennan and Marshall.

During the next several years, lower courts relied on Bowers v. Hardwick to dismiss claims of unconstitutional discrimination against gays and lesbians, reasoning that a group that is constitutionally subject to criminal penalties for its behaviour could justifiably be treated differently from other groups. Meanwhile, scholarly commentary on the decision overwhelmingly regarded the dissenters in Bowers as having made the better legal arguments. This view was eventually adopted by the Supreme Court itself in 2003 in Lawrence v. Texas, which declared: “Bowers was not correct when it was decided [and] is not correct today.”