International Relations, MAR-PER
International relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies, political parties, and interest groups). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.
International Relations Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Maravi Confederacy
Maravi Confederacy, centralized system of government established in southern Africa about 1480. The members of......
Marco Polo Bridge Incident
Marco Polo Bridge Incident, (July 7, 1937), conflict between Chinese and Japanese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge......
Marshall Mission
Marshall Mission, special mission undertaken in late 1945 by U.S. general George C. Marshall to negotiate a settlement......
Masulipatam, Treaty of
Treaty of Masulipatam, (Feb. 23, 1768), agreement by which the state of Hyderabad, India, submitted to British......
Mecca Pact
Mecca Pact, mutual security arrangement between Saudi Arabia, Turkey (Türkiye), and Pakistan, signed in August......
mediation
mediation, a practice under which, in a conflict, the services of a third party are utilized to reduce the differences......
Medina del Campo, Treaty of
Treaty of Medina del Campo, (1489), treaty between Spain and England, which, although never fully accepted by either......
member states of the Commonwealth
The 56 member states of the Commonwealth, which is also called Commonwealth of Nations, encompass the United Kingdom......
member states of the United Nations (UN)
member states of the United Nations (UN), states that have been admitted into the United Nations (UN). The UN is......
Memel dispute
Memel dispute, post-World War I dispute regarding sovereignty over the former German Prussian territory of Memelland.......
Mercosur
Mercosur, South American regional economic organization. Mercosur grew out of earlier efforts to integrate the......
Mexican Cession
Mexican Cession, relinquishment of more than half of Mexico’s territory to the United States under the terms of......
MI5
MI5, intelligence agency charged with internal security and domestic counterintelligence activities of the United......
MI6
MI6, British government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and appropriate dissemination of foreign......
middle power
middle power, in international relations, a state that holds a position in the international power spectrum that......
military intelligence
military intelligence, in military science, information concerning an enemy or an area. The term is also used for......
monetary union
monetary union, agreement between two or more states creating a single currency area. A monetary union involves......
Monroe Doctrine
Monroe Doctrine, (December 2, 1823), cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy enunciated by Pres. James Monroe in his......
Montevideo Convention
Montevideo Convention, agreement signed at Montevideo, Uruguay, on December 26, 1933 (and entering into force the......
Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol, international treaty, adopted in Montreal on September 16, 1987, that aimed to regulate the......
Montreux Convention
Montreux Convention, (1936) agreement concerning the Dardanelles strait, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus strait.......
monuments men and women
monuments men and women, informal name for members of the Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives (MFAA) program run......
Moroccan crises
Moroccan crises, (1905–06, 1911), two international crises centring on France’s attempts to control Morocco and......
Moscow, Treaty of
Treaty of Moscow, (March 16, 1921), pact concluded at Moscow between the nationalist government of Turkey and the......
Mossad
Mossad, (Hebrew: “Central Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations”), one of the three major intelligence......
most-favoured-nation treatment
most-favoured-nation treatment (MFN), guarantee of trading opportunity equal to that accorded to the most-favoured......
Mozambique Conventions
Mozambique Conventions, series of agreements concerning relations between South Africa and Mozambique. The initial......
Mudros, Armistice of
Armistice of Mudros, (Oct. 30, 1918), pact signed at the port of Mudros, on the Aegean island of Lemnos, between......
Mukden Incident
Mukden Incident, seizure of the Manchurian city of Mukden (now Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China) by Japanese......
multilateralism
multilateralism, process of organizing relations between groups of three or more states. Beyond that basic quantitative......
Munich Agreement
Munich Agreement, (September 30, 1938), settlement reached by Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy that permitted......
Muslim World League
Muslim World League (MWL), international nongovernmental organization founded in 1962 to propagate Islam and to......
mutual assured destruction
mutual assured destruction, principle of deterrence founded on the notion that a nuclear attack by one superpower......
Nagodba
Nagodba, 1868, pact that governed Croatia’s political status as a territory of Hungary until the end of World War......
Nanjing, Treaty of
Treaty of Nanjing, (August 29, 1842) treaty that ended the first Opium War, the first of the unequal treaties between......
Nansen International Office for Refugees
Nansen International Office for Refugees, international office opened by the League of Nations in 1931 to complete......
National Security Agency
National Security Agency (NSA), U.S. intelligence agency within the Department of Defense that is responsible for......
National Security Council
National Security Council (NSC), U.S. agency within the Executive Office of the President, established by the National......
Nations, League of
League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established on January 10, 1920, at the initiative......
Nerchinsk, Treaty of
Treaty of Nerchinsk, (1689), peace settlement between Russia and the Manchu Chinese empire that checked Russia’s......
Neuchâtel crisis
Neuchâtel crisis, (1856–57), tense episode of Swiss history that had repercussions among the Great Powers of Europe.......
Neuilly, Treaty of
Treaty of Neuilly, (Nov. 27, 1919), peace treaty between Bulgaria and the victorious Allied powers after World......
New England Confederation
New England Confederation, in British American colonial history, a federation of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New......
New Imperialism
New Imperialism, period of intensified imperialistic expansion from the latter half of the 19th century until the......
new regionalism
new regionalism, shift in national systems of administration and cultural, economic, and political organization......
Nijmegen, Treaties of
Treaties of Nijmegen, peace treaties of 1678–79 that ended the Dutch War, in which France had opposed Spain and......
Nixon Doctrine
Nixon Doctrine, a foreign policy of the U.S. government, announced by U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon in 1969, whereby......
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize, any of the prizes (five in number until 1969, when a sixth was added) that are awarded annually from......
Non-Aligned Movement
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), international organization dedicated to representing the interests and aspirations......
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Treaty on the
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, agreement of July 1, 1968, signed by the United Kingdom, the......
Nonimportation Agreements
Nonimportation Agreements, (1765–75), in U.S. colonial history, attempts to force British recognition of political......
Nootka Sound controversy
Nootka Sound controversy, (1790), dispute over the seizure of vessels at Nootka Sound, an inlet on the western......
Nordic Council of Ministers
Nordic Council of Ministers, organization of the Nordic states of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden......
North American Free Trade Agreement
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), controversial trade pact signed in 1992 that gradually eliminated......
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), military alliance established in 1949 that sought to create a counterweight......
North German Confederation
North German Confederation, union of the German states north of the Main River formed in 1867 under Prussian hegemony......
Notable Female Spies
As the women highlighted here show, female spies have played significant roles throughout history. They worked......
Novgorod, Treaty of
Treaty of Novgorod, (June 3, 1326), the peace treaty ending decades of hostilities between the principality of......
Nuclear Suppliers Group
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), voluntary association of 48 countries that are capable of exporting and transporting......
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty
Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty, treaty signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by the United States, the Soviet Union, and......
Numbered Treaties
Numbered Treaties, (1871–1921), in Canadian history, a series of 11 treaties negotiated between the dominion and......
Office of Strategic Services
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), agency of the U.S. federal government (1942–45) formed for the purpose of obtaining......
offshore balancing
offshore balancing, theory of international relations that views multipolarity—when international relations are......
Olmütz, Punctation of
Punctation of Olmütz, (Nov. 29, 1850), agreement signed at Olmütz (Olomouc, Moravia, in modern Czech Republic)......
OPEC
OPEC, multinational organization that was established to coordinate the petroleum policies of its members and to......
Open Door policy
Open Door policy, statement of principles initiated by the United States in 1899 and 1900 for the protection of......
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), international organization established by the Chemical......
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), international organization founded in 1970 as the Agence......
Organization of American States
Organization of American States (OAS), organization formed to promote economic, military, and cultural cooperation......
Oslo Accords
Oslo Accords, set of agreements between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) that established......
Ostpolitik
Ostpolitik, (German: “Eastern Policy”) West German foreign policy begun in the late 1960s. Initiated by Willy Brandt......
Outer Space Treaty
Outer Space Treaty, (1967), international treaty binding the parties to use outer space only for peaceful purposes.......
Pacific Community, Secretariat of the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), organization founded in 1947 by the governments of Australia, France,......
Pacific Islands Forum
Pacific Islands Forum, organization established in 1971 to provide a setting for heads of government to discuss......
pacifism
pacifism, the principled opposition to war and violence as a means of settling disputes. Pacifism may entail the......
Pact of Steel
Pact of Steel, Alliance between Germany and Italy. Signed by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini on May 22, 1939,......
Pan American Health Organization
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), organization founded in December 1902 to improve health conditions in......
Pan-American conferences
Pan-American conferences, various meetings between representatives of some or all of the independent states of......
Pan-American Union
Pan-American Union, Organization formed in 1890 to promote cooperation among the countries of Latin America and......
Panama Canal Treaty
Panama Canal Treaty, (September 7, 1977), agreement signed in Washington, D.C., by U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter and......
Panda Diplomacy
Panda diplomacy is China’s practice of using giant pandas as a way to cultivate global friendship and cooperation.......
Pangkor Engagement
Pangkor Engagement, (1874), treaty between the British government and Malay chiefs in Perak, the first step in......
Paris Agreement
Paris Agreement, international treaty, named for the city of Paris, France, in which it was adopted in December......
Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, (1919–20), the meeting that inaugurated the international settlement after World War I.......
Paris Peace Treaties
Paris Peace Treaties, (1947) series of treaties between the Allied powers and five defeated European countries......
Paris, Peace of
Peace of Paris, (1783), collection of treaties concluding the American Revolution and signed by representatives......
Paris, Treaties of
Treaties of Paris, (1814–15), two treaties signed at Paris respectively in 1814 and 1815 that ended the Napoleonic......
Paris, Treaty of
Treaty of Paris, (1898), treaty concluding the Spanish-American War. It was signed by representatives of Spain......
Paris, Treaty of
Treaty of Paris, (1763), treaty concluding the Franco-British conflicts of the Seven Years’ War (called the French......
Paris, Treaty of
Treaty of Paris, (1856), treaty signed on March 30, 1856, in Paris that ended the Crimean War. The treaty was signed......
Passarowitz, Treaty of
Treaty of Passarowitz, (July 21, 1718), pact signed at the conclusion of the Austro-Turkish (1716–18) and Venetian-Turkish......
Passport
Passport, a formal document or certification issued by a national government identifying a traveler as a citizen......
Peace, Board of
Board of Peace, international body, chaired by U.S. Pres. Donald Trump, “that seeks to promote stability, restore......
Peel Commission
Peel Commission, group headed by Lord Robert Peel, appointed in 1936 by the British government to investigate the......
Peloponnesian League
Peloponnesian League, military coalition of Greek city-states led by Sparta, formed in the 6th century bc. League......
PEN, International
International PEN, international organization of writers. The original PEN was founded in London in 1921 by the......
Pentagon Papers
Pentagon Papers, papers that contain a history of the U.S. role in Indochina from World War II until May 1968 and......
Pereyaslav Agreement
Pereyaslav Agreement, (Jan. 18 [Jan. 8, Old Style], 1654), act undertaken by the rada (council) of the Cossack......
Persian Gulf War
Persian Gulf War, (1990–91), international conflict that was triggered by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2,......
Peruvian–Bolivian Confederation
Peruvian–Bolivian Confederation, transitory union of Peru and Bolivia (1836–39). Bolivia’s dictator, Andrés Santa......