The Ancient World, CAY-CYR
The modern world may look very different from the world that existed in the time of ancient civilizations, but our modern-day life continues to show the influence of cultures, traditions, ideas, and innovations from hundreds of years ago. Learn more about important historical civilizations, sites, people, and events.
The Ancient World Encyclopedia Articles By Title
Caylus, Anne-Claude-Philippe de TubiĂšres, comte de
Anne-Claude-Philippe de TubiĂšres, count de Caylus was a French archaeologist, engraver, and man of letters. The......
censor
censor, in ancient Rome, a magistrate whose original functions of registering citizens and their property were......
Cerro SechĂn
Cerro SechĂn, pre-Columbian temple site in the present-day Casma Valley, of the north central coast of Peru, known......
Chalcedon
Chalcedon, ancient maritime town on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, opposite modern Istanbul, Turkey. A Megarian......
Champollion, Jean-François
Jean-François Champollion was a French historian and linguist who founded scientific Egyptology and played a major......
Chan Chan
Chan Chan, great ruined and abandoned city, the capital of the ChimĂș kingdom (c. 1100â1470 ce) and the largest......
Chanakya
Chanakya was a Hindu statesman and philosopher who wrote a classic treatise on polity, Artha-shastra (âThe Science......
Chandragupta
Chandragupta was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty (reigned c. 321âc. 297 bce) and the first emperor to unify......
Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I is considered the founder of the Gupta dynasty, which ruled over northern and parts of central and......
Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II, was a powerful emperor (reigned c. 380âc. 415 ce) of northern India. He was the son of Samudra......
Changâan
Changâan, ancient site, north-central China. Formerly the capital of the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties, it is located......
Chankillo
Chankillo, archaeological site erected between 200 and 300 bce in the desert of the SechĂn River basin in the Ancash......
Charnay, Claude-Joseph-Désiré
Claude-Joseph-Désiré Charnay was a French explorer and archaeologist, noted for his pioneering investigations of......
ChavĂn
ChavĂn, earliest highly developed culture in pre-Columbian Peru, which flourished between about 900 and 200 bc.......
ChavĂn de HuĂĄntar
ChavĂn de HuĂĄntar, site of temple ruins, west-central Peru. The ruins belong to the ChavĂn pre-Columbian culture,......
Chellean industry
Chellean industry, an early Stone Age industry characterized by crudely worked hand axes. The implements from Chelles......
Chichén Itzå
Chichén Itzå, ruined ancient Maya city occupying an area of 4 square miles (10 square km) in south-central Yucatån......
ChimĂș
ChimĂș, South American Indians who maintained the largest and most important political system in Peru before the......
China
China, country of East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries. Occupying nearly the entire East Asian landmass,......
- Introduction
- Mountains, Plateaus, Rivers
- Eastern Region, Geography, Culture
- Sichuan Basin, Agriculture, Population
- Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, Gobi Desert
- Soil Types, Climate, Erosion
- Climate, Temperature, Variation
- Rainfall, Monsoon, Climate
- Wildlife, Mammals, Birds
- Sino-Tibetan, Ethnic Groups, Geography
- Altaic, Ethnic Groups, Geography
- Urbanization, Megacities, Population
- Population, Geography, Regions
- Government, Economy, Politics
- Economic Reforms, Growth, Trade
- Farming, Crops, Fisheries
- Minerals, Resources, Mining
- Manufacturing, Industry, Exports
- Trade, Silk Road, Manufacturing
- Railways, Expansion, Network
- Rivers, Canals, Lakes
- Posts, Telecommunications, Infrastructure
- Constitution, Government, Politics
- Administration, Regions, Provinces
- Health, Welfare, Population
- Education, Literacy, Schools
- Culture, Traditions, History
- Art, Sculpture, Painting
- Cultural Institutions
- Dynasties, Revolution, Communism
- Ancient Sites, Dynasties, Artifacts
- Ancient History, Dynasties, Civilization
- Religion, Social Structure
- Shang Dynasty, Oracle Bones, Bronze Age
- Divination, Religion, Shang
- Ancient Dynasties, Rituals, Oracle Bones
- Feudalism, Zhou Dynasty, Confucianism
- Cultural, Political, Social Changes
- Dynasties, Emperors, Civilization
- Qin Empire, 221-207 BCE
- Han Dynasty, Silk Road, Confucianism
- Ancient Dynasties, Silk Road, Confucianism
- Dynasties, Emperors, History
- Dynasties, Culture, Economy
- Provincial Government, Autonomy, Regions
- Government, Politics, Bureaucracy
- Relations, Peoples, Trade
- Dynasties, Art, Religion
- Six Dynasties, Han, Tang
- Shiliuguo, Sixteen Kingdoms, 303-439
- Daoism, Philosophy, Religion
- Sui Dynasty, Grand Canal, Reunification
- Foreign Affairs, Yangdi, Expansion
- Administration, Politics, Regions
- Dynasties, Reforms, Economy
- Empress Wuhou, Tang Dynasty, Unification
- Economic Growth, Reforms, Infrastructure
- Provincial Separatism
- Central Authority, Dynasties, Warlords
- Arts, Culture, Traditions
- Migration, Urbanization, Ruralization
- Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms
- Tangut, Khitan, Juchen
- Song Dynasty, Economy, Culture
- Consolidation, Expansion, Revolution
- Decline, Fall, Qing Dynasty
- Survival, Consolidation, Reforms
- Juchen Relations, Dynasties, Trade
- Dynasties, Emperors, Rulers
- Bureaucracy, Imperialism, Dynasties
- Neo-Confucianism, Philosophy, Education
- Song Culture, Art, Economy
- Yuan Dynasty, Mongol Rule, Silk Road
- Invasion, Song, Dynasty
- Mongol Empire, Yuan Dynasty, Expansion
- Manufacturing, Exports, Imports
- Buddhism, Monasteries, Philosophy
- Ancient, Poetry, Novels
- Trade, Expansion, Mongols
- Mongol Rule, Dynasties, Imperialism
- Dynastic Succession, History, Culture
- Government, Administration, Politics
- Innovations, Technology, Economy
- Relations, Diplomacy, Trade
- Economic Reforms, Growth, Trade
- Coinage, Currency, Mints
- Literature, Scholarship, Classics
- Manchu Dynasty, Expansion, Cultural Revolution
- Economic Reform, Industrialization, Urbanization
- Dynastic Rule, Social Hierarchy, Confucianism
- Population, Economy, Culture
- Opium War, Aftermath, Treaty
- Uprising, Revolution, Democracy
- Muslim Rebellions
- Foreign Relations, 1860s
- Tibet, Nepal, Himalayas
- Japan, Ryukyu, Islands
- Reform, 1898, Dynasty
- Reform, Revolution, Dynasty
- Revolution, 1911-12, Republic
- WWI, Neutrality, Treaty
- Civil War, Nationalists, Communists
- Riots, Protests, Repression
- Communist, Nationalist, Cooperation
- Reorganization, KMT, Politics
- Northern Expedition, Warlord Era, Kuomintang
- Nationalist, 1928-1937
- Civil War, Nationalists, Communists
- Stagnation, Reforms, Economy
- U.S. Aid, Relations, Trade
- Nationalism, Deterioration, Revolution
- Civil War, Revolution, Mao Zedong
- Civil War, Revolution, Communism
- Land Reform, Revolution, Economy
- Revolution, Communism, Mao
- Reconstruction, Consolidation, 1949-52
- Socialism, Transition, Revolution
- Politics, Reforms, Revolution
- Reforms, Modernization, Industrialization
- Cultural Revolution, Maoism, Communism
- Cultural Revolution, Mao, Communism
- Political Repression, Cultural Revolution, Maoism
- Urbanization, Reforms, Industrialization
- Struggle, Premiership, Politics
- Consequences, Revolution, Impact
- Economic Reforms, Marketization, Privatization
- Education, Cultural Reforms, Policies
- Leaders, 1949, PRC
Chios, Battle of
The naval defeat of Philip V of Macedon at the Battle of Chios in 201 bce was the last large-scale naval battle......
ChoghÄ ZanbÄ«l
ChoghÄ ZanbÄ«l, ruined palace and temple complex of the ancient Elamite city of Dur Untashi (Dur Untash), near Susa......
Chol
Chol, Mayan Indians of northern Chiapas in southeastern Mexico. The Chol language is closely related to Chontal,......
Chopper chopping-tool industry
Chopper chopping-tool industry, certain stone tool traditions of Asia, probably of later Pleistocene age, characterized......
ChortĂ
ChortĂ, Mayan Indians of eastern Guatemala and Honduras and formerly of adjoining parts of El Salvador. The ChortĂ......
Choukoutienian industry
Choukoutienian industry, tool assemblage discovered along with cultural remains at the Chou-kâou-tien (Pinyin Zhoukoudian)......
Chu
Chu, one of the most important of the small states contending for power in China between 770 and 223 bce. Originally......
Cicero
Cicero was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, and writer who vainly tried to uphold republican principles in the......
Ciceronian period
Ciceronian period, first great age of Latin literature, from approximately 70 to 43 bc; together with the following......
Cilicia
Cilicia, ancient district of southern Anatolia, bounded on the north and west by the Taurus Mountain Range, on......
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius
Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus was a Roman statesman who gained fame for his selfless devotion to the republic in......
Cinna, Lucius Cornelius
Lucius Cornelius Cinna was a leader of the Marian party in Rome who opposed Lucius Cornelius Sulla. After serving......
Circus Maximus
Circus Maximus, largest of the Roman hippodromes and one of the largest sports arenas ever built. A U-shaped structure......
Citium
Citium, principal Phoenician city in Cyprus, situated on the southeast coast near modern Larnaca. The earliest......
Civilis, Gaius Julius
Gaius Julius Civilis was a Batavi chieftain and a Roman army officer who led a rebellion on the Rhine frontier......
civitas
civitas, citizenship in ancient Rome. Roman citizenship was acquired by birth if both parents were Roman citizens......
Clactonian industry
Clactonian industry, early flake tool tradition of Europe. Rather primitive tools were made by striking flakes......
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity, historical period spanning from the output of ancient Greek author Homer in the 8th century......
Classicism
Classicism, aesthetic attitude and art style based on or reiterating themes, techniques, and subjects of art from......
Claudius
Claudius was a Roman emperor (41â54 ce), who extended Roman rule in North Africa and made Britain a province. The......
Claudius Caecus, Appius
Appius Claudius Caecus was an outstanding statesman, legal expert, and author of early Rome who was one of the......
Claudius II Gothicus
Claudius II Gothicus was a Roman emperor in 268â270, whose major achievement was the decisive defeat of the Gothic......
Claudius Pulcher, Appius
Appius Claudius Pulcher was a Roman politician, a leading member of the senatorial party opposed to the powerful......
Claudius Pulcher, Appius
Appius Claudius Pulcher was a Roman politician, father-in-law of the agrarian reformer Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus.......
Claudius Pulcher, Publius
Publius Claudius Pulcher was the son of Appius Claudius Caecus and commander of the fleet that suffered the only......
Claudius Sabinus Inregillensis, Appius
Appius Claudius Sabinus Inregillensis was the traditional founder of the Claudii, one of the most distinguished......
Cleon
Cleon was the first prominent representative of the commercial class in Athenian politics, he became leader of......
Cleopatra
Cleopatra was an Egyptian queen of the Ptolemaic dynasty, famous in history and drama as the lover of both Julius......
Cleophon
Cleophon was an Athenian statesman, one of the dominant figures in Athenian politics until the end of the Peloponnesian......
Clermont-Ganneau, Charles
Charles Clermont-Ganneau was a French archaeologist who contributed to biblical studies and also exposed a number......
cleruchy
cleruchy, in ancient Greece, body of Athenian citizens in a dependent country holding grants of land awarded by......
Cloaca Maxima
Cloaca Maxima, ancient Roman sewer, one of the oldest monuments in the Roman Forum. Originally an open channel......
Clodius Pulcher, Publius
Publius Clodius Pulcher was a disruptive politician, head of a band of political thugs, and bitter enemy of Cicero......
Clovis complex
Clovis complex, ancient culture that was widely distributed throughout North America. It is named for the first......
Clusium
Clusium, ancient Etruscan town on the site of modern Chiusi, in Tuscany regione, north-central Italy. Clusium was......
Cnidus
Cnidus, ancient Greek city on the Carian Chersonese, on the southwest coast of Anatolia. The city was an important......
CobĂĄ
CobĂĄ, ancient Mayan city on the YucatĂĄn Peninsula, now in northeastern Quintana Roo, Mexico. The site is the nexus......
Cochise culture
Cochise culture, an ancient North American Indian culture that existed perhaps 9,000 to 2,000 years ago, known......
Coffin Texts
Coffin Texts, collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts consisting of spells or magic formulas, painted on......
colony
colony, in Roman antiquity, a Roman settlement in conquered territory. The earliest colonies were coast-guard communities,......
comitia
comitia, in ancient Republican Rome, a legal assembly of the people. Comitia met on an appropriate site (comitium)......
Comitia Centuriata
Comitia Centuriata, Ancient Roman military assembly, instituted c. 450 bc. It decided on war and peace, passed......
Commodus
Commodus was a Roman emperor from 177 to 192 (sole emperor after 180). His brutal misrule precipitated civil strife......
Confucianism
Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6thâ5th century bce and followed by the Chinese people......
Conon
Conon was an Athenian admiral notable for his overwhelming victory over the Spartan fleet off Cnidus (the southwestern......
Constans I
Constans I was a Roman emperor from 337 to 350. The youngest son of Constantine the Great (reigned 306â337), Constans......
Constantine I
Constantine I was the first Roman emperor to profess Christianity. He not only initiated the evolution of the empire......
Constantine II
Constantine II was a Roman emperor from 337 to 340. The second son of Constantine the Great (ruled 306â337), he......
Constantine, Basilica of
Basilica of Constantine, large, roofed hall in Rome, begun by the emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine......
Constantius I
Constantius I was a Roman emperor and father of Constantine I the Great. As a member of a four-man ruling body......
Constantius II
Constantius II was a Roman emperor from ad 337 to 361, who at first shared power with his two brothers, Constantine......
Constantius III
Constantius III was a Roman emperor in 421. Constantius came from Naissus (modern NiĆĄ, Serbia) in the province......
consul
consul, in ancient Rome, either of the two highest of the ordinary magistracies in the ancient Roman Republic.......
Consus
Consus, ancient Italian deity, cult partner of the goddess of abundance, Ops. His name was derived from condere......
Coon, Carleton S.
Carleton S. Coon was an American anthropologist who made notable contributions to cultural and physical anthropology......
CopĂĄn
CopĂĄn, ruined ancient Maya city, in extreme western Honduras near the Guatemalan border. It lies on the west bank......
Corbulo, Gnaeus Domitius
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo was a Roman general who restored Roman control over Armenia. In ad 47 Corbulo was victorious......
Corinth
Corinth, an ancient and a modern city of the Peloponnese, in south-central Greece. The remains of the ancient city......
Corinth, League of
League of Corinth, offensive and defensive alliance of all the Greek states except Sparta, organized in 337 bce......
Coriolanus, Gnaeus Marcius
Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus, legendary Roman hero of patrician descent who was said to have lived in the late 6th......
Cottius
Cottius was the king and then prefect of the Ligurian tribes living in the area now called the Cottian Alps, centred......
Crassus Dives Mucianus, Publius Licinius
Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus was a Roman politician who supported the agrarian reforms of the tribune......
Crassus, Lucius Licinius
Lucius Licinius Crassus was a lawyer and politician who is usually considered to be one of the two greatest Roman......
Crassus, Marcus Licinius
Marcus Licinius Crassus was a politician who in the last years of the Roman Republic formed the so-called First......
Crispus
Crispus was the eldest son of Constantine the Great who was executed under mysterious circumstances on his fatherâs......
crowns of Egypt
crowns of Egypt, part of the sovereign regalia of the kings of ancient Egypt. The crown of Upper Egypt was white......
Ctesiphon, Battle of
Battle of Ctesiphon, clash of June 26â27, 363 ce, during the realm of Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, who had......
Cueva de las Manos
Cueva de las Manos, archaeological site comprising a stunning collection of cave art, perhaps best known for featuring......
Cumont, Franz
Franz Cumont was a Belgian archaeologist and philologist who strongly influenced the modern Protestant school of......
cuneiform
cuneiform, system of writing used in the ancient Middle East. The name, a coinage from Latin and Middle French......
Cunningham, Sir Alexander
Sir Alexander Cunningham was a British army officer and archaeologist who excavated many sites in India, including......
curia
curia, in ancient Rome, a political division of the people. According to tradition Romulus, the cityâs founder,......
Curio, Gaius Scribonius
Gaius Scribonius Curio was a Roman politician, partisan of Julius Caesar against Pompey. He was the son of a statesman......
Curio, Gaius Scribonius
Gaius Scribonius Curio was a Roman statesman and orator, father of a noted politician of the same name. Curio opposed......
Curtius, Ernst
Ernst Curtius was a German archaeologist and historian who directed the excavation of Olympia, the most opulent......
Curtius, Marcus
Marcus Curtius, a legendary hero of ancient Rome. According to legend, in 362 bc a deep chasm opened in the Roman......
curule chair
curule chair, a style of chair reserved in ancient Rome for the use of the highest government dignitaries and usually......
Cynoscephalae, Battle of
Battle of Cynoscephalae, (197 bce), conclusive engagement of the Second Macedonian War, in which Roman general......
Cyprian, St.
St. Cyprian was an early Christian theologian and bishop of Carthage who led the Christians of North Africa during......
Cyprus
Cyprus, island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea renowned since ancient times for its mineral wealth, superb wines......
- Introduction
- Greek, Turkish, Mediterranean
- Economy, Tourism, Agriculture
- Manufacturing, Textiles, Food
- Politics, Divisions, EU
- Culture, Religion, Cuisine
- Mediterranean, Conflict, Independence
- Turkey, Greece, Conflict
- Byzantine Empire, Mediterranean, Divided Island
- Ottoman Rule, Conflict, Divisions
- Mediterranean, Divided, Island
- Reunification, Negotiations, Conflict
Cyrus the Great
Cyrus the Great was a conqueror who founded the Achaemenid Empire, centered on Persia and comprising the ancient......