The Ancient World, NAT-PEL
The modern world may look very different from the world that existed in the time of ancient civilizations, but our modern-day life continues to show the influence of cultures, traditions, ideas, and innovations from hundreds of years ago. Learn more about important historical civilizations, sites, people, and events.
The Ancient World Encyclopedia Articles By Title
nation-state
nation-state, a territorially bounded sovereign polity—i.e., a state—that is ruled in the name of a community of......
National Geographic Magazine
National Geographic Magazine, monthly magazine of geography, archaeology, anthropology, and exploration, providing......
National Museum
National Museum, museum in Lima, Peru, that contained artifacts offering an overview of pre-Hispanic human history......
National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru, The
The National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru, museum in Lima, Peru, noted for its historical......
Natufian culture
Natufian culture, Mesolithic culture of Palestine and southern Syria dating from about 9000 bc. Mainly hunters,......
Nauwalabila I
Nauwalabila I, rock shelter archaeological site in the Northern Territory, Australia, that archaeological evidence......
Nazca
Nazca, culture located on the southern coast of present-day Peru during the Early Intermediate Period (c. 200 bc–ad......
Nazca Lines
Nazca Lines, groups of geoglyphs, large line drawings that appear, from a distance, to be etched into Earth’s surface......
Ndutu
Ndutu, site in northern Tanzania known for a 400,000-year-old human cranium and associated Stone Age tools discovered......
Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II was the second and greatest king of the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonia (reigned c. 605–c. 561......
Nebuchadrezzar I
Nebuchadrezzar I was the most famous Babylonian king (reigned 1119–1098 bce) of the 2nd dynasty of the Isin. In......
Necho I
Necho I was the governor of Sais, a city of the Egyptian Nile delta, under the Assyrians and ancestor of the 26th......
Necho II
Necho II was a king of Egypt (reigned 610–595 bce), and a member of the 26th dynasty, who unsuccessfully attempted......
Nectanebo I
Nectanebo I was the first king (reigned 380–362 bce) of the 30th dynasty of Egypt. He successfully opposed an attempt......
Nectanebo II
Nectanebo II was the third and last king (reigned 360–343 bce) of the 30th dynasty of Egypt; he was the last of......
Nemean Games
Nemean Games, in ancient Greece, athletic and musical competitions held in honour of Zeus, in July, at the great......
Neo-Babylonian empire
Neo-Babylonian empire, ancient Middle Eastern empire with its capital at Babylon. It dominated much of Southwest......
Neoclassical art
Neoclassical art, a widespread and influential movement in painting and the other visual arts that began in the......
Nepos, Julius
Julius Nepos was the last legitimate Western Roman emperor (reigned 474–475). Born of a distinguished family, Nepos......
Nergal
Nergal, in Mesopotamian religion, secondary god of the Sumero-Akkadian pantheon. He was identified with Irra, the......
Nero
Nero was the fifth Roman emperor (54–68 ce), stepson and heir of the emperor Claudius. He became infamous for his......
Nero, Gaius Claudius
Gaius Claudius Nero, Roman military commander during the latter half of the Second Punic War (218–201 bce). He......
Nerva
Nerva was a Roman emperor from Sept. 18, 96, to January 98, the first of a succession of rulers traditionally known......
Netherlands
Netherlands, country located in northwestern Europe, also known as Holland. “Netherlands” means low-lying country;......
- Introduction
- Dutch, Multicultural, Diverse
- Trade, Agriculture, Industry
- Rail, Road, Air
- Politics, Constitution, Government
- Art, Cuisine, Windmills
- Dutch, Low Countries, Golden Age
- Politics, Constitution, Reform
- 12 Years Truce, Peace, Sovereignty
- Dutch Republic, Revolution, Enlightenment
- Trade, Art, Science
- Enlightenment, Trade, Reforms
- Napoleonic, Batavian, Revolution
- Dutch Republic, Unification, Napoleonic Wars
- WWI, Wilhelmina, Neutrality
- Lowlands, Economy, Politics
Neuserre
Neuserre, sixth king of the 5th dynasty (c. 2465–c. 2325 bc) of Egypt; he is primarily known for his temple to......
Newton, Sir Charles Thomas
Sir Charles Thomas Newton was a British archaeologist who excavated sites in southwestern Turkey and disinterred......
Niah Cave
Niah Cave, site of significant archaeological evidence concerning prehistoric human existence in Southeast Asia,......
Nicias
Nicias was an Athenian politician and general during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 bc) between Sparta and Athens.......
Niebuhr, Barthold Georg
Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a German historian who started a new era in historical studies by his method of source......
Niger, Pescennius
Pescennius Niger was a rival Roman emperor from 193 to 194. An equestrian army officer from Italy, Niger was promoted......
Nile River
Nile River, the longest river in the world, called the father of African rivers. It rises south of the Equator......
Ninazu
Ninazu, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumerian deity, the city god of Enegir, which was located on the Euphrates River......
Nineveh
Nineveh, the oldest and most-populous city of the ancient Assyrian empire, situated on the east bank of the Tigris......
Nineveh, Battle of
Generations of bitter warfare characterize the history of the ancient Near East, and especially that of ancient......
Ningishzida
Ningishzida, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumerian deity, city god of Gishbanda, near Ur in the southern orchard region.......
Ninhar
Ninhar, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumerian deity, city god of Kiabrig, near Ur in the southern herding region.......
Ninhursag
Ninhursag, in Mesopotamian religion, city goddess of Adab and of Kish in the northern herding regions; she was......
Ninlil
Ninlil, Mesopotamian goddess, the consort of the god Enlil and a deity of destiny. She was worshiped especially......
Ninsun
Ninsun, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumerian deity, city goddess of Kullab in the southern herding region. As Ninsun’s......
Ninus
Ninus, in Greek mythology, king of Assyria and the eponymous founder of the city of Nineveh, which itself is sometimes......
Nippur
Nippur, ancient city of Mesopotamia, now in southeastern Iraq. It lies northeast of the town of Ad-Dīwānīyah. Although......
Nisa
Nisa, first capital of the Parthians, located near modern Ashgabat in Turkmenistan. Nisa was traditionally founded......
Nissaba
Nissaba, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumerian deity, city goddess of Eresh on the ancient Euphrates River near Uruk......
Niẓām al-Mulk
Niẓām al-Mulk was a Persian vizier of the Turkish Seljuq sultans (1063–92), best remembered for his large treatise......
Nok culture
Nok culture, ancient Iron Age culture that existed on the Benue Plateau of Nigeria between about 500 bce and 200......
nome
nome, administrative division of ancient Egypt. The system of dividing the country into nomes was definitely in......
Nomos
Nomos, in law, the concept of law in ancient Greek philosophy. The problems of political authority and the rights......
Nora
Nora, ancient site about 22 miles (35 km) southwest of Cagliari (Caralis) on the island of Sardinia. Although tradition......
Nordenskiöld, Erland
Erland Nordenskiöld was a Swedish ethnologist, archaeologist, and a foremost student of South American Indian culture.......
Noricum
Noricum, region of Europe north of what is now Italy, roughly comprising modern central Austria and parts of Bavaria,......
North Africa
North Africa, region of Africa comprising the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. The geographic......
- Introduction
- Ancient, Phoenicians, Egyptians
- Carthage, Phoenicians, Mediterranean
- Political, Military, Institutions
- Greeks, Cyrenaica, Colonization
- Urbanization, Cities, Culture
- Christianity, Donatist, Controversy
- Vandals, Conquest, History
- Arab Conquest, Colonization, Decolonization
- Rustamid, Tahart, Sahara
- Almoravids, Almohads, Maghrib
- Political Fragmentation, Islamic Culture, 1250-1500
- Colonization, Decolonization, Conflict
Numa Pompilius
Numa Pompilius was the second of the seven kings who, according to Roman tradition, ruled Rome before the founding......
Numantia
Numantia, a Celtiberian town (now Garray), near modern Soria in Spain on the upper Douro (Duero) River. Founded......
Numerian
Numerian was a Roman emperor from 283–284. He succeeded his father, Carus, in the summer of 283, in the midst of......
Numidia
Numidia, under the Roman Republic and Empire, a part of Africa north of the Sahara, the boundaries of which at......
Nusku
Nusku, in Mesopotamian religion, Sumero-Akkadian god of light and fire. His father was Sin (Sumerian: Nanna), the......
Nuttall, Zelia Maria Magdalena
Zelia Maria Magdalena Nuttall was an American archaeologist, remembered for her extensive investigations of ancient......
Octavia
Octavia was the full sister of Octavian (later the emperor Augustus) and wife of Mark Antony. Octavia was the daughter......
Odaenathus, Septimius
Septimius Odaenathus was a prince of the Roman colony of Palmyra (q.v.), in what is now Syria, who prevented the......
Old Cordilleran culture
Old Cordilleran culture, ancient North American culture of the Pacific Northwest that appeared about 9000 or 10,000......
Oldowan industry
Oldowan industry, toolmaking tradition characterized by crudely worked pebble (chopping) tools from the early Paleolithic,......
Olduvai Gorge
Olduvai Gorge, paleoanthropological site in the eastern Serengeti Plain, within the boundaries of the Ngorongoro......
Olmec
Olmec, the first elaborate pre-Columbian civilization of Mesoamerica (c. 1200–400 bce) and one that is thought......
Olybrius
Olybrius was the Western Roman emperor from April to November 472. Before he became head of state, Olybrius was......
Olympic Games
Olympic Games, athletic festival that originated in ancient Greece and was revived in the late 19th century. Before......
- Introduction
- Women, History, Sport
- Corruption, Scandals, Bribery
- Sports, Nations, Medals
- Torch, Rings, Anthem
- Ancient Greece, Sports, Medals
- London 1908, Sports, Medals
- Berlin 1936, Nazi Germany, Jesse Owens
- Rome 1960, Italy, Sports
- Munich, Terror Attack, Medals
- Barcelona, Spain, 1992
- Beijing 2008, China, Sports
- Winter Sports, Medals, Nations
- Alpine Skiing, Figure Skating, Bobsleigh
- Innsbruck, Austria, 1964
- Lake Placid, 1980, US
- Nagano, Japan, 1998
- Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, 2010
Omo
Omo, site of paleoanthropological excavations along the southern part of the Omo River in southwestern Ethiopia;......
Ophir
Ophir, unidentified region famous in Old Testament times for its fine gold. The geographic list of Genesis 10 apparently......
Opis
Opis, lost city of Babylonia, in the southern part of modern Iraq. Although the location of the ancient city has......
Optimates and Populares
Optimates and Populares, (Latin: respectively, “Best Ones,” or “Aristocrats”, and “Demagogues,” or “Populists”),......
Orestes
Orestes was the regent of Italy and minister to Attila, king of the Huns. He obtained control of the Roman army......
Orsi, Paolo
Paolo Orsi was an archaeologist who pioneered in the excavation and research of sites, from the prehistoric to......
Osroëne
Osroëne, ancient kingdom in northwestern Mesopotamia, located between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and lying......
Osteodontokeratic tool industry
Osteodontokeratic tool industry, assemblage of fossilized animal bones found at Taung by Raymond Arthur Dart about......
Ostrogoth
Ostrogoth, member of a division of the Goths. The Ostrogoths developed an empire north of the Black Sea in the......
Otho
Otho was a Roman emperor from January to April 69. Otho was born into a family that had held the consulship under......
Oxyrhynchus
Oxyrhynchus, ancient capital of the 19th Upper Egyptian nome (province), on the western edge of the Nile valley,......
Pachacamac
Pachacamac, large pre-Columbian ruin located in the Lurin Valley on the central coast of present-day Peru. The......
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui was an Inca emperor (1438–71), an empire builder who, because he initiated the swift, far-ranging......
Pacorus
Pacorus was a Parthian prince, son of King Orodes II (reigned c. 55/54–37/36 bc); he apparently never ascended......
Pakistan
Pakistan, populous multiethnic country of South Asia. Having a predominately Indo-Iranian speaking population,......
- Introduction
- Himalayas, Karakoram, Indus
- Balochistan, Plateau, Geography
- Indus River, Plains, Agriculture
- Deserts, Thar, Indus
- Flora, Fauna, Ecosystems
- Ethnic Groups, Languages, Religions
- Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism
- Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan
- Urbanization, Cities, Megacities
- Agriculture, Manufacturing, Services
- Resources, Power, Economy
- Economy, Banking, Taxation
- Labour, Taxation, Economy
- Federalism, Democracy, Constitution
- Constitution, Federalism, Democracy
- Politics, Constitution, Democracy
- Housing, Urbanization, Migration
- Culture, Cuisine, Traditions
- Arts, Culture, Heritage
- Partition, Independence, Conflict
- Partition, Independence, 1947
- Political Decline, Bureaucratic Ascendancy
- Military, Government, Politics
- Disunion, Zia-ul-Huq, Era
- Zia-ul-Haq, Military Rule, Islamization
- Fragmentation, Ethnicity, Conflict
- Bhutto, Politics, Economy
- Conflict, Economy, Nuclear Tests
- Pervez Musharraf, Government, Politics
- Constitution, Politics, Society
- Politics, Economy, Society
- Nawaz Sharif, Politics, Economy
Palermo Stone
Palermo Stone, one of the basic sources of information about the chronology and cultural history of ancient Egypt......
Palici
Palici, ancient pair of local Sicilian gods who presided over the twin geysers still called Lago dei Palici, near......
Pamphylia
Pamphylia, ancient maritime district of southern Anatolia, originally a narrow strip of land that curved along......
Panlongcheng
Panlongcheng, Chinese archaeological site dating to about the middle of the Shang dynasty period (c. 1600–1046......
Paphlagonia
Paphlagonia, ancient district of Anatolia adjoining the Black Sea, bounded by Bithynia in the west, Pontus in the......
papyrus
papyrus, writing material of ancient times and also the plant from which it was derived, Cyperus papyrus (family......
Paracas
Paracas, culture centred on the peninsula of the same name, located in present-day southern Peru in the vicinity......
Parian Chronicle
Parian Chronicle, document inscribed on marble in the Attic Greek dialect and containing an outline of Greek history......
Parrot, André
André Parrot was a French archaeologist, Protestant theologian, and museum director noted for having discovered......
Pasargadae
Pasargadae, first dynastic capital of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, situated on a plain northeast of Persepolis......
pater patriae
pater patriae, in ancient Rome, a title originally accorded (in the form parens urbis Romanae, or “parent of the......
Patna
Patna, city, capital of Bihar state, northern India. It lies about 290 miles (470 km) northwest of Kolkata (Calcutta).......
Paullus Macedonicus, Lucius Aemilius
Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus was a Roman general whose victory over the Macedonians at Pydna ended the Third......
Pax Romana
Pax Romana, a state of comparative tranquillity throughout Classical antiquity and the Mediterranean world from......
Payne, Humfry (Gilbert Garth)
Humfry Payne was an English archaeologist noted for the publication Necrocorinthia (1931), in which a vast body......
Pazyryk
Pazyryk, Scythian burial site in a dry valley opening on the Bolshoy Ulagan River valley in Kazakhstan. The site,......
Pedra Furada
Pedra Furada, Controversial archaeological site, northeastern Brazil. It was thought to contain hearths and stone......
Peloponnese
Peloponnese, peninsula of 8,278 square miles (21,439 square km), a large, mountainous body of land jutting southward......
Peloponnesian League
Peloponnesian League, military coalition of Greek city-states led by Sparta, formed in the 6th century bc. League......
Peloponnesian War
Peloponnesian War, (431–404 bce), war fought between the two leading city-states in ancient Greece, Athens and......