Zitkala-Sa (born Gertrude Simmons, 1876–1938) was a writer and reformer who fought for Native American rights and cultural preservation. At age eight, she was sent to a Quaker missionary school. Later, she attended Earlham College, and taught at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School where she felt uneasy with the school's Euro-American curriculum that suppressed Native American culture. She wrote short stories and autobiographical essays for The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly , exploring her cultural identity. In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends , a collection of Dakota stories. Zitkala-Sa founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926 and advocated for Native American rights until her death. In 2024, she was featured in the U.S. American Women Quarters Program.

What kind of writing did Zitkala-Sa do?

Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was a writer and reformer who advocated for Native American rights and cultural preservation. While teaching at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, she wrote short stories and autobiographical essays for The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly under the name Zitkala-Sa. Her writing explored her struggle to maintain her cultural identity while facing pressure to assimilate into American culture. In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends , an anthology of Dakota stories. Zitkala-Sa also co-authored Oklahoma’s Poor Rich Indians (1924), which exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans in Oklahoma. Additionally, she wrote the libretto for The Sun Dance , the first opera by a Native American.

Where was Zitkala-Sa from and what was her heritage?

Zitkala-Sa, born Gertrude Simmons, was born on February 22, 1876, on the Yankton Sioux Agency in South Dakota. Her mother was a Yankton Sioux, and her father was Euro-American. Zitkala-Sa adopted her Native American name in her teens. Her writings and activism were significantly influenced by her mixed heritage and her struggle to preserve her cultural identity amidst pressure to assimilate into American culture. She dedicated her life to advocating for Native American rights and safeguarding their cultural heritage.

How did Zitkala-Sa share Native American stories and culture through her work?

Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was dedicated to sharing Native American stories and culture through her writing and activism. In her writings, Zitkala-Sa addressed themes of cultural identity and the struggle to retain it amidst pressure to assimilate into American culture. While teaching at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, she published short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly under the name Zitkala-Sa. In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends , an anthology of retold Dakota stories. Zitkala-Sa also co-authored the opera The Sun Dance in 1913.

Why is Zitkala-Sa considered important in American history?

Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, is an important figure in American history due to her work as a writer, reformer, and advocate for Native American rights. She strove to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their cultures. Zitkala-Sa published short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly , exploring her struggle to retain her cultural identity. She co-authored Oklahoma’s Poor Rich Indians , which exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans in Oklahoma. As president of the National Council of American Indians, she advocated for citizenship rights, education, health care, and cultural preservation, and her investigation of land swindles led to reforms. In 2023, she was chosen for the American Women Quarters Program.

How did Zitkala-Sa work for Native American rights besides being a writer?

Zitkala-Sa was a reformer who worked to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their cultures. As secretary of the Society of American Indians, she served as a liaison between the society and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Zitkala-Sa founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926 and, as president, advocated for citizenship rights, better education, improved health care, and cultural recognition and preservation. Her investigation of land swindles against Native Americans led to her appointment as an advisor to the U.S. government’s Meriam Commission of 1928.

Zitkala-Sa

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Red book cover for Old Indian Legends by Zitkala-Sa, featuring green and white decorative patterns and a circular design with ribbon on the left.

Open book showing the title page of Old Indian Legends by Zitkala-Sa and an illustration of a man bending toward a woman in a grassy clearing under a tree.

Quick Facts

Lakota:: “Red Bird”

Birth name:: Gertrude Simmons

Married name:: Gertrude Bonnin

Born:: February 22, 1876, Yankton Sioux Agency, South Dakota, U.S.

Died:: January 26, 1938, Washington, D.C. (aged 61)

Zitkala-Sa

American writer

Also known as: Gertrude Bonnin, Gertrude Simmons

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Britannica Editors

History

Top Questions

Who was Zitkala-Sa?
Zitkala-Sa (born Gertrude Simmons, 1876–1938) was a writer and reformer who fought for Native American rights and cultural preservation.

At age eight, she was sent to a Quaker missionary school. Later, she attended Earlham College, and taught at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School where she felt uneasy with the school's Euro-American curriculum that suppressed Native American culture.

She wrote short stories and autobiographical essays for The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly, exploring her cultural identity. In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends, a collection of Dakota stories.

Zitkala-Sa founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926 and advocated for Native American rights until her death. In 2024, she was featured in the U.S. American Women Quarters Program.
1 Britannica Source
1. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
What kind of writing did Zitkala-Sa do?
Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was a writer and reformer who advocated for Native American rights and cultural preservation.

While teaching at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, she wrote short stories and autobiographical essays for The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly under the name Zitkala-Sa. Her writing explored her struggle to maintain her cultural identity while facing pressure to assimilate into American culture.

In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends, an anthology of Dakota stories. Zitkala-Sa also co-authored Oklahoma’s Poor Rich Indians (1924), which exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans in Oklahoma. Additionally, she wrote the libretto for The Sun Dance, the first opera by a Native American.
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1. American Women Quarters Program List: Zitkala-Sa
2. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
Where was Zitkala-Sa from and what was her heritage?
Zitkala-Sa, born Gertrude Simmons, was born on February 22, 1876, on the Yankton Sioux Agency in South Dakota. Her mother was a Yankton Sioux, and her father was Euro-American.

Zitkala-Sa adopted her Native American name in her teens. Her writings and activism were significantly influenced by her mixed heritage and her struggle to preserve her cultural identity amidst pressure to assimilate into American culture. She dedicated her life to advocating for Native American rights and safeguarding their cultural heritage.
2 Britannica Sources
1. Layli Long Soldier: Education, influences, and first book
2. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How did Zitkala-Sa share Native American stories and culture through her work?
Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was dedicated to sharing Native American stories and culture through her writing and activism. In her writings, Zitkala-Sa addressed themes of cultural identity and the struggle to retain it amidst pressure to assimilate into American culture. While teaching at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, she published short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly under the name Zitkala-Sa. In 1901, she published Old Indian Legends, an anthology of retold Dakota stories. Zitkala-Sa also co-authored the opera The Sun Dance in 1913.
2 Britannica Sources
1. American Women Quarters Program List: Zitkala-Sa
2. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
Why is Zitkala-Sa considered important in American history?
Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, is an important figure in American history due to her work as a writer, reformer, and advocate for Native American rights.

She strove to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their cultures. Zitkala-Sa published short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly, exploring her struggle to retain her cultural identity.

She co-authored Oklahoma’s Poor Rich Indians, which exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans in Oklahoma. As president of the National Council of American Indians, she advocated for citizenship rights, education, health care, and cultural preservation, and her investigation of land swindles led to reforms. In 2023, she was chosen for the American Women Quarters Program.
1 Britannica Source
1. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.
How did Zitkala-Sa work for Native American rights besides being a writer?
Zitkala-Sa was a reformer who worked to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their cultures. As secretary of the Society of American Indians, she served as a liaison between the society and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Zitkala-Sa founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926 and, as president, advocated for citizenship rights, better education, improved health care, and cultural recognition and preservation. Her investigation of land swindles against Native Americans led to her appointment as an advisor to the U.S. government’s Meriam Commission of 1928.
2 Britannica Sources
1. American Women Quarters Program List: Zitkala-Sa
2. Zitkala-Sa
Created from Britannica articles using AI. AI can make mistakes, so verify using Britannica articles.

Zitkala-Sa (born February 22, 1876, Yankton Sioux Agency, South Dakota, U.S.—died January 26, 1938, Washington, D.C.) was a writer and reformer who strove to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their cultures.

Gertrude Simmons was the daughter of a Yankton Sioux mother and a Euro-American father. She adopted the name Zitkala-Sa in her teens. When she was eight, she was sent to White’s Manual Labor Institute, a Quaker missionary school in Wabash, Indiana. At age 19, against her family’s wishes, she enrolled at Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, also a Quaker school, and graduated in 1897. For two years she taught at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, but she was uncomfortable with the school’s harsh discipline and its curriculum, which was devised to teach Euro-American ways and history, thus eradicating students’ Native American cultural identities.

While at Carlisle, she published several short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Monthly under her name Zitkala-Sa. The pieces’ themes derived from her struggle to retain her cultural identity amid pressure to adapt to the dominant American culture. In 1901 she published Old Indian Legends, an anthology of retold Dakota stories.

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Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960) portrait by Carl Van Vecht April 3, 1938. Writer, folklorist and anthropologist celebrated African American culture of the rural South.

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She married Raymond Talesfase Bonnin (who was half Euro-American and half Sioux) in 1902, and they moved to a reservation in Utah. She became a correspondent for the Society of American Indians, the first reform organization to be administered entirely by Native Americans.

In 1913 she collaborated with the composer William F. Hanson, writing the libretto for the opera The Sun Dance, the first opera by a Native American. It premiered that same year in Vernal, Utah, and was staged periodically by rural troupes before being performed in 1938 by the New York Light Opera Guild.

In 1916 she became the secretary of the Society of American Indians, and she and her husband moved to Washington, D.C., where she served as a liaison between the society and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. She also edited the society’s American Indian Magazine (1918–19). Under the name Gertrude Bonnin, she coauthored (with Charles H. Fabens and Matthew K. Sniffen) the book Oklahoma’s Poor Rich Indians, an Orgy of Graft and Exploitation of the Five Civilized Tribes, Legalized Robbery (1924), which exposed the mistreatment of Native Americans in Oklahoma.

She founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926, and, as the organization’s president, she advocated citizenship rights, better educational opportunities, improved health care, and cultural recognition and preservation. Her investigation of land swindles perpetrated against Native Americans resulted in her appointment as an adviser to the U.S. government’s Meriam Commission of 1928, the findings of which eventually led to several important reforms. She remained active as a spokesperson for Native American concerns until her death.

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In 2023 the U.S. government chose Zitkala-Sa as part of its American Women Quarters Program, which features trailblazing women on quarter coin designs. Her coin was released in 2024. It depicts her wearing traditional Yankton Sioux dress and holding a book, which represents her work as an author as well as her activism for Native American rights. A stylized Sun behind her represents her work on The Sun Dance opera, while a cardinal symbolizes her name. Underneath the Sun is a diamond pattern inspired by a Yankton Sioux motif.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by René Ostberg.

Zitkala-Sa

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