Tyconius

Tyconius, one of the most important biblical theologians of 4th-century North African Latin Christianity. Although little is known of his life, his positions on the theology of the church (ecclesiology) ultimately provided his younger contemporary and the Church Father St. Augustine with crucial arguments against the Donatists (a schismatic church in North Africa). In addition, Tyconius’s antimillenarian interpretation of traditionally millenarian Scriptures, such as the book of Daniel in the Old Testament and Revelation in the New Testament, were appropriated by generations of Latin Christian biblical commentators and theologians, from Jerome in the late 4th century to Bede and Beatus of Liebana in the 8th century. The ecclesiastical allegiances of his supporters, however, only demonstrate the irony and loneliness of Tyconius’s position: although he was a Donatist who incurred his own church’s censure, he never went over to the Catholics.

Tyconius’s isolation from both the Catholic and Donatist churches, which were locked in a bitter dispute over whether to accept clergy who had lapsed in the face of persecution, perhaps accounts for the ultimate fate of his writings, all but one of which were lost. His first two treatises, De bello intestino (c. 370?; “On Civil War”) and Expositiones diversarum causarum (c. 375?; “Explanations of Diverse Causes”), asserted the universality of the church and the necessarily mixed moral status of its members: the church, Tyconius held, in the time before the End, must comprise both sinners and saints. These positions stood against the ecclesiological principles of his own party, the Donatists, which held that the true church can contain only the righteous and that such a church was visibly manifest chiefly, if not solely, in the Donatists of Africa. Tyconius’s positions in fact brought about his censure at a Donatist council about 380. Despite opposition from both churches, Tyconius wrote two more works, both of which were exegetical in nature. The Liber regularum (c. 382; The Book of Rules), his sole surviving work, is a handbook for interpreting Scripture, and In Apocalypsin (c. 385?) is a commentary on Revelation that applies the rules set out in the earlier handbook.

In The Book of Rules Tyconius names seven keys or rules identifying the constitutive principles of biblical prose. The attentive reader who knew these rules would be guided through “the vast forest of prophecy” of Scripture. Rules 1 (De Domino et corpore eius; “On the Lord and his body”), 2 (De Domini corpore bipertito; “On the two parts of the Lord’s body”), and 7 (De diabolo et eius corpore; “On the Devil and his body”) emphasized the ambiguity of particular figures or images in Scripture. Biblical uses of “the Lord,” for example, refer sometimes to Christ, sometimes to his “body,” the church. Likewise, apparent references to the Devil might mean either the Devil himself or his followers. And the Lord’s body, the church, might refer to good or ill, since it represents a corpus permixtum (“mixed body”) containing both sinner and saint. Rules 4 (De specie et genere), 5 (De temporibus; “On time”), and 6 (De recapitulatione; “On recapitulation”) explore the ambiguity of scriptural things, numbers, and narrative. In Tyconius’s discussion, statements apparently about particular things can actually refer to general truths; numbers that appear to quantify something may actually serve only to symbolize that thing; and references to time may vary obscurely between prediction and description. Rule 3 (De promissis et lege; “On promises and law”) stands out from the others in that it addresses not a hermeneutical problem but a theological one: how are God’s gift of grace and his promise of salvation compatible with human freedom? Drawing especially on the letters of the apostle Paul, Tyconius answers that inerrant divine foreknowledge explains both why and how God gives grace while preserving free will.

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Tyconius’s contribution to biblical interpretation came at a crucial time. The growing linguistic divide between the Greek East and Latin West had recapitulated a general difference in styles of theological thinking. Eastern theologians, as represented most especially by Origen (c. 185–c. 254), had been able through allegory to reconcile the philosophical principles of paideia with the figures and stories available in the Bible. In so doing they were able to enunciate an ethics of free will from the stories of divine election in Scripture and were also able to see in the millenarian passages of both the Old and the New Testament the expression of timeless spiritual truths.

But with the outbreak of a controversy over Origen’s teachings in the Latin West in the late 4th century, philosophical allegory ceased to be an acceptable technique of scriptural exegesis. Tyconius offered a fresh alternative. His method emphasized historical typologies, not philosophical principles. He also drew on Pauline notions of history and prophecy rather than on a priori definitions of nature to stress the essential compatibility of human moral freedom and God’s sovereignty. His hermeneutic also emphasized understanding the ways that God, as revealed in Scripture, works in human time, and his notion of the double meaning of certain scriptural images allowed him to reconfigure biblical prophecy. Verses pertaining to the Second Coming of Christ are revealed, according to Rule 1, to speak of the coming of his church: though still historical, the import of the image is no longer apocalyptic. Numbers seeming to measure duration—the thousand-year reign of the saints with Christ of the Apocalypse of John 20:4, for example—actually symbolize spiritual qualities such as “perfection” or “fullness,” because, as the cube of 10, 1,000 indicated fullness or perfection, revealed by the number of years of Christ’s reign when interpreted by appeal to Rule 5.

Tyconius’s work had a profound effect on Augustine, and through him on subsequent Latin theology. Augustine explicitly referred to The Book of Rules in his own book on exegesis, Christian Doctrine (books 1–3 396/397, book 4 426). In the antimillenarian arguments of Book 20 of City of God (413–426/427), he applied Tyconius’s techniques to derive nonapocalyptic meanings for phrases and figures in the Gospel According to Matthew and the Book of Revelation. Drawing on Tyconius’s principle that the quotidian church must consist of both the righteous and the reprobate, Augustine developed a powerful critique of and polemic against Donatist perfectionist ecclesiology. Finally, and most significantly, Augustine encountered Tyconius’s reading of Paul and his scriptural meditation on divine grace and human freedom in a period when Augustine himself was struggling with his own understanding of the apostle. Although he came to reject Tyconius’s particular interpretation of the relation between divine foreknowledge and salvation, Augustine adopted Tyconius’s insight that salvation history (the course of events from the Creation to the Last Judgment) is both linear (the narrative of Scripture) and interior (the spiritual development of the individual). From his reading of Tyconius in the 390s, Augustine came to a new, historical understanding of the self, of Paul, and of biblical narrative, in both the Old Testament and the New Testament, that led to his signature masterworks: Confessions (397), Against Faustus (397/398), Literal Commentary on Genesis (401–414/415), and City of God.