Pindar

Pindar (born probably 518 bc, Cynoscephalae, Boeotia, Greece—died after 446, probably c. 438, Argos) was the greatest lyric poet of ancient Greece and the master of epinicia, choral odes celebrating victories achieved in the Pythian, Olympic, Isthmian, and Nemean games.

Early training

Pindar was of noble birth, possibly belonging to a Spartan family, the Aegeids, though the evidence for this is inconclusive. His parents, Daiphantus and Cleodice, survive only as names; his uncle Scopelinus, a skilled aulos player, doubtless helped with Pindar’s early musical training. The family possessed a town house in Thebes (to be spared by express command of Alexander the Great in the general destruction of that city by the Macedonians in 335 bc). Such a background would have given Pindar a ready entrée into aristocratic circles in other Greek cities.

Pindar’s poetry borrowed certain fundamental characteristics from the cultural traditions of his native Boeotia, a region that remained rather at the margins of political and economic trends of the Archaic (c. 650–480) and Classical (c. 450–323) periods. His poetry evinces a conservative attitude of absolute adherence to aristocratic values, a rigorous sense of piety, and a familiarity with the great mythological heritage that descended from the Mycenaean period (c. 16th–12th century bc) and achieved a first systematic presentation, significantly, in the work of Pindar’s Boeotian predecessor Hesiod at the end of the 8th century. Ancient authorities make Pindar the contemporary of the Boeotian poet Corinna, who was supposed to have beaten him in poetic competitions and to have advised him, in reference to his tendency to overuse myth, “to sow with the hand and not with the whole sack.” Pindar was said to have insulted Corinna by calling her a pig.

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The ancient biographical tradition reports that as a young man Pindar went to Athens to complete and refine his poetic education. It is unclear whether he studied there with Lasus of Hermione, who had introduced important innovations into the dithyramb, or whether he learned from him at second hand. At any rate, in 497 or 496 Pindar, scarcely more than 20 years of age, won first place in the dithyrambic competition at the Great Dionysia, an event that had been introduced in 508.

Professional career

Seventeen volumes of Pindar’s poetry, comprising almost every genre of choral lyric, were known in antiquity. Only four books of epinicia have survived complete, doubtless because they were chosen by a teacher as a schoolbook in the 2nd century ad. They are supplemented by numerous fragments, and 20th-century finds of papyri have contributed to a deeper understanding of Pindar’s achievement, especially in paeans and dithyrambs.

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All the evidence, however, suggests that the epinicia were Pindar’s masterpieces. These are divided as Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, or Nemean—the games in which the victories he celebrated were held; the epinicia number 44 odes in all. The earliest surviving epinicion (Pythian ode 10) dates from 498, and Pindar already had an assured mastery of his medium when he wrote it. It would have been quite possible for him to evolve into a cosmopolitan artist like Simonides, welcome all over the Greek world and moving easily from city to city. No doubt Pindar visited the Panhellenic festivals, at Delphi (where the Pythian games were held) and Olympia in particular, to absorb the atmosphere of the games and celebrate his victories. He would also have seen in person the homes of the aristocrats and the courts of the tyrants whose triumphs he sang. But in general he preferred to remain loyal to his native land and reside in Thebes; characteristically, Pindar’s standards and values, like his poetry, changed little if at all over the years.

Such patriotism meant sacrifices. Thebes, like Delphi, collaborated with the enemy in the Persian War—though admittedly Thebes had little alternative. But whereas Delphi’s prestige was quickly restored after the retreat of the Persians, Thebes’s defection was not lightly forgiven or forgotten. Athens was to dominate the history of the 5th century, and, for the first two-thirds of it, Athens had very much the better of its long drawn-out quarrel with Thebes. From 457 to 447 bc, Boeotia was virtually an Athenian dependency, and almost everywhere in the region the aristocratic way of life—integral to Pindar’s personality and art alike—was threatened. Politically and economically, the monopolies of power by the noble families were broken. The aristocratic code (summed up in a famous line of Homer, “ever to excel and to surpass other men”) was undermined by the radical rationalism of a new age. Choral lyric itself had little future as a separate art form, and tragedy absorbed into itself what was most vital in the tradition; Pindar had no worthy successors. It is a tribute to the quality of Pindar’s poetry that, although he must have regarded these contemporary cultural and political developments with disdain, or at best with indifference (apart perhaps from his reinterpretation of some of the traditional stories concerning the gods), he was universally respected and accepted as a major creative artist.

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Pindar’s early poems have almost all been lost; it is probable, however, that what gave him a growing reputation beyond the borders of Boeotia were hymns in honour of the gods. Pindar was born at the time of the Pythian festival, and from his youth he had a close connection with the Pythian priesthood, which served the oracular shrine of Apollo at Delphi. Pindar and his descendants, indeed, enjoyed special privileges at Delphi, where his memory was cherished in later times and where an iron chair, in which it was said he had sat to sing, was exhibited. The first commissions for epinicia came mostly from aristocratic connections: the Aleuads in Thessaly (Pythian ode 10; 498 bc), the Alcmaeonids in Athens (Pythian ode 7; 486), and, above all, the Aeacids of the island of Aegina (the series begins with paean 6, dating from 490, and continues with Nemean ode 7). Progress in winning recognition seems to have been steady, if slow.

A significant breakthrough came when Pindar established a link with the court of Theron of Acragas through the tyrant’s brother Xenocrates, whose chariot won the Pythian contest (Pythian odes 6 and 12, composed for the victory of the aulete Midas in musical competitions; 490). But the Persian invasion of Greece came before the promise of this new connection could be fulfilled. Pindar faced a crisis of divided loyalties, torn between a sense of solidarity with the aristocracy of Boeotia, who followed a pro-Persian policy, and a growing appreciation of Spartan and Athenian heroic resistance. Pindar was first and foremost a Theban, and he stood by his friends, many of whom paid for their policy with their lives. But it was Simonides, not Pindar, who wrote the poems of rejoicing at Greece’s victories and of mourning for its glorious dead.

It took Pindar some years to reestablish himself; fortunately, his friends in Aegina were staunch (Isthmian ode 8; 478). It is virtually certain that he visited Sicily in 476–474 and was made welcome at the courts of Theron of Acragas and Hieron I of Syracuse. They were to elicit much of his greatest poetry, and it was through these connections that Pindar’s reputation spread throughout the Greek world and commissions flowed in from the mainland, the islands, and also from the remoter outposts of Hellenism. Promising new contacts were made with the royal houses of Macedon and Cyrene (Alexander of Macedon, fragment 120; Arcesilas of Cyrene, Pythian odes 4 and 5; 462 bc).

Theron and Hieron respected and admired Pindar, but his aristocratic temper made him dangerously outspoken. Diplomatic tact and finesse were not among his qualities, and his adroit rivals, Simonides and Bacchylides, were more pliant and adaptable (Bacchylides, not Pindar, celebrated Hieron’s Olympic victory in the chariot race in 468). Echoes of Pindar’s bitter resentment sound in his poetry. So too Pindar’s intervention on behalf of Damophilus, a noble exile from Cyrene (Pythian ode 4), seems to have been taken amiss, and he was not invited to commemorate Arcesilas’s triumph at Olympia in 460. Nevertheless, these were the years of supreme achievement, and Pindar found a growing demand for his poetry and a growing appreciation of his skill. His debt to Athens was amply paid in a famous tribute (fragment 76) that the Athenians never tired of citing, one that earned the poet special honours in that city (and, according to ancient tradition, a fine at Thebes). It was probably in this period that Pindar married.

The subsequent decade of Athenian domination in central Greece coincided with a period when Delphi was controlled by Phocis in northern Greece. These were dark years for Pindar, and his poetic output dwindled. But he continued to celebrate Theban victories (Isthmian odes 1 and 7), and he found inspiration in the achievements of his Aeacid friends of Aegina, though their days of nominal independence were clearly numbered (Isthmian odes 5 and 6 and Nemean odes 3–8; all celebrate Aeginetan successes). Pindar’s last extant poem (Pythian ode 8) appropriately commemorates an Aeacid victory. The last datable epinicion is from 446 bc. According to the ancient biographical tradition, Pindar died in Argos at age 80, in the arms of a handsome boy, Theoxenus, whose name appears in a fragment of an encomium the poet dedicated to him.