On October 15, 1815, Napoleon disembarked in St. Helena with those followers who were voluntarily accompanying him into exile: General Henri-Gratien Bertrand, grand marshal of the palace, and his wife; the comte Charles de Montholon, aide-de-camp, and his wife; Gen. Gaspard Gourgaud; Emmanuel Las Cases, the former chamberlain; and several servants. After a short stay at the house of a wealthy English merchant, they moved to Longwood, originally built for the lieutenant governor.

Napoleon settled down to a life of routine. He got up late, breakfasting about 10:00 am, but seldom went out. He was free to go anywhere on the island so long as he was accompanied by an English officer, but he soon refused to comply with this condition and so shut himself up in the grounds of Longwood. He wrote and talked much. At first Las Cases acted as his secretary, compiling what was later to be the Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène (first published in 1823). From 7:00 to 8:00 pm Napoleon had dinner, after which a part of the evening was spent in reading aloud—Napoleon liked to hear the classics. Then they played cards. About midnight Napoleon went to bed. Some of his time was devoted to learning English, and he eventually began reading English newspapers, but he also had a large number of French books sent from Europe, which he read attentively and annotated.

St. Helena had a healthful climate, and Napoleon’s food was good, carefully prepared, and plentiful. His inactivity undoubtedly contributed to the deterioration of his health. The man who for 20 years had played so great a role in the world and who had marched north, south, east, and west across Europe could hardly be expected to endure the monotony of existence on a little island, aggravated by the self-imposed life of a recluse. He had also more intimate reasons for unhappiness: Marie-Louise sent no word to him, and he may have learned of her liaison with the Austrian officer appointed to watch over her, Adam, Graf (count) von Neipperg (whom she eventually married in secret without waiting for Napoleon’s death). Nor did he have any news of his son, the former king of Rome, who was now living in Vienna with the title of duke of Reichstadt. Though the severity of Sir Hudson Lowe has been much exaggerated, it is certain that this “jailer,” who arrived as governor of St. Helena in April 1816, did nothing to make Napoleon’s life easier. Napoleon from the start disliked him as the former commander of the Corsican rangers, a band of volunteers composed largely of enemies of the Bonaparte family. Always anxious to carry out his instructions exactly, Lowe came into conflict with Las Cases. He saw Las Cases as Napoleon’s confidant and had him arrested and expelled. Thenceforward, relations between the governor and Napoleon were limited strictly to those stipulated by the regulations.

Napoleon showed the first signs of illness at the end of 1817; he seems to have had an ulcer or a cancer of the stomach. The Irish doctor Barry O’Meara, having asked in vain for a change in the conditions under which Napoleon lived, was dismissed; so also was his successor John Stokoe, who was likewise thought to be well-disposed toward Napoleon. The undistinguished Corsican doctor who took their place, Francesco Antommarchi, prescribed a treatment that could do nothing to cure his patient. It is uncertain, however, whether Napoleon’s disease was curable at all, even by 21st-century methods. There has been continuing controversy about the cause of his death, but the evidence used by some to support the theory that Napoleon was poisoned is not considered conclusive by many scholars.

From the beginning of 1821, the illness became rapidly worse. From March, Napoleon was confined to bed. In April he dictated his last will:

I wish my ashes to rest on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of that French people which I have loved so much.…I die before my time, killed by the English oligarchy and its hired assassins.

On May 5 he spoke a few coherent phrases: “My God…the French nation…my son…head of the army.” He died at 5:49 pm on that day, not yet 52 years old. His body was dressed in his favorite uniform, that of the Chasseurs de la Garde, covered by the gray overcoat that he had worn at Marengo. The funeral was conducted simply, but with due propriety, in the Rupert Valley, where Napoleon had sometimes walked, beside a stream in which two willows were reflected. The stone covering his tomb bore no name, only the words “Ci-Gît” (“Here Lies”).

The Napoleonic legend

Napoleon’s fall set loose a torrent of hostile books designed to sully his reputation. One of the least violent of these was the pamphlet De Buonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la nécessité de se rallier à nos princes légitimes, pour le bonheur de la France et celui de l’Europe (1814; On Buonaparte and the Bourbons, and the Necessity of Rallying Around Our Legitimate Princes, for the Safety of France and of Europe) by the vicomte de Chateaubriand, a well-known writer of royalist sympathies. But this anti-Napoleonic literature soon died down, while the task of defending Napoleon was taken up. Lord Byron had published his “Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte” as early as 1814; the German poet Heinrich Heine wrote his ballad “Die Grenadiere”; and in 1817 the French novelist Stendhal began his biography Vie de Napoléon (Life of Napoleon). At the same time, the emperor’s most faithful supporters were working toward his rehabilitation, talking about him, and distributing reminders of him, including engravings. They idealized his life (“What a novel my life is!” he himself had said) and began to create the Napoleonic legend.

As soon as the emperor was dead, the legend grew rapidly. Memoirs, notes, and narratives by those who had followed him into exile contributed substantially to it. In 1822 O’Meara, in London, had his Napoleon in Exile; or, A Voice from Saint Helena published; in 1823 the publication of the Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de France sous Napoléon, écrits à Sainte-Hélène sous sa dictée (Memoirs of the History of France During the Reign of Napoleon, Dictated by the Emperor at St. Helena) by Montholon and Gourgaud, began; Las Cases, in his famous Mémorial, presented the emperor as a republican opposed to war who had fought only when Europe forced him to fight in defense of freedom; and in 1825 Antommarchi published his Derniers moments de Napoléon (The Last Days of Emperor Napoleon). Thereafter the number of works in Napoleon’s honor increased continually; among them were Victor Hugo’s “Ode à la Colonne” (“Ode to the Column”), the 28 volumes of the Victoires et conquêtes des Français (“Victories and Conquests of the French”), edited by Charles-Louis-Fleury Panckoucke, and Sir Walter Scott’s Life of Napoleon Buonaparte, Emperor of the French. Neither police action nor prosecutions could prevent books, pictures, and objects evoking the imperial saga from multiplying in France.

After the July Revolution of 1830, which created the “Bourgeois Monarchy” under Louis-Philippe, thousands of tricolor flags appeared in windows, and the government had not only to tolerate the growth of the legend but even to promote it. In 1833 the statue of Napoleon was put back on the top of the column in the Place Vendôme in Paris, and in 1840 the king’s son François, prince de Joinville, was sent in a warship to fetch the emperor’s remains from St. Helena to the banks of the Seine in accordance with his last wishes. A magnificent funeral was held in Paris in December 1840, and Napoleon’s body was conveyed through the Arc de Triomphe in the Place de l’Étoile to entombment under the dome of the Invalides.

Napoleon’s nephew Louis-Napoléon exploited the legend in order to seize power in France. Though his attempts at Strasbourg in 1836 and at Boulogne in 1840 were failures, it was chiefly because of the growth of the legend that he won election to the presidency of the Second Republic with an overwhelming majority in 1848 and was able to carry out the coup d’état of December 1851 and make himself emperor in 1852.

The disastrous end of the Second Empire in 1870 damaged the Napoleonic legend and gave rise to a new anti-Napoleonic literature, best represented by Hippolyte Taine’s Origines de la France contemporaine (1876–94; The Origins of Contemporary France). As previously noted, Napoleon was very much a man of the 18th century. Brought up on the rationalist Encyclopédie and on the writings of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, he can be seen as the most successful of the “enlightened despots” of his time, the one with the most lasting effect in terms of institutions and ideas.

In socioeconomic terms, Napoleon’s rule had quite limited effects. The social structure of France changed little under the First Empire. It remained roughly what the Revolution had made it: a great mass of peasants comprising three-fourths of the population—about half of them working owners of their farms or sharecroppers and the other half with too little land for their own subsistence and hiring themselves out as laborers. Industry, stimulated by the war and the blockade of English goods, made remarkable progress in northern and eastern France, whence exports could be sent to central Europe; but it declined in the south and west because of the closing of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The great migrations from rural areas toward industry in the towns began only after 1815. The nobility would probably have declined more swiftly if Napoleon had not restored it, but it could never recover its former privileges.

The most important part of Napoleon’s legacy lies in the creation of durable institutions, the “granite masses” on which modern France has been built up: the administrative system of the prefects, the Napoleonic Code, the judicial system, the Banque de France and the country’s financial organization, the centralized university, and the military academies. Napoleon also revolutionized military strategy through an emphasis on speed, flexibility, and mobility. In addition, his deployment of mass armies of citizen-soldiers (also a legacy of revolutionary ideals) influenced military strategists around the globe. Napoleon changed the history both of France and the world.