Martin Heidegger

Martin Heidegger (born September 26, 1889, Messkirch, Schwarzwald, Germany—died May 26, 1976, Freiburg im Breisgau, West Germany) was a German philosopher, counted among the main exponents of existentialism. His groundbreaking work in ontology (the philosophical study of being, or existence) and metaphysics determined the course of 20th-century philosophy on the European continent and exerted an enormous influence on virtually every other humanistic discipline, including literary criticism, hermeneutics, psychology, and theology.

Background and early career

Heidegger was the son of a sexton of the local Roman Catholic church in Messkirch, Germany. Although he grew up in humble circumstances, his obvious intellectual gifts earned him a religious scholarship to pursue his secondary education in the neighbouring town of Konstanz.

While in his 20s Heidegger studied at the University of Freiburg under Heinrich Rickert and Edmund Husserl. He received a doctorate in philosophy in 1913 with a dissertation on psychologism, Die Lehre vom Urteil im Psychologismus: ein kritisch-positiver Beitrag zur Logik (“The Doctrine of Judgment in Psychologism: A Critical-Positive Contribution to Logic”). In 1915 he completed his habilitation thesis (a requirement for teaching at the university level in Germany) on the Scholastic theologian John Duns Scotus.

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In the following year Heidegger’s study of classical Protestant texts by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others led to a spiritual crisis, the result of which was his rejection of the religion of his youth, Roman Catholicism. He completed his break with Catholicism by marrying a Lutheran, Elfride Petri, in 1917.

As a lecturer at Freiburg starting in 1919, Heidegger became heir apparent to leadership of the movement that Husserl had founded, phenomenology. The goal of phenomenology was to describe as exactly as possible the phenomena and structures of conscious experience without appeal to philosophical or scientific preconceptions about their nature, origin, or cause. From Husserl, Heidegger learned the method of phenomenological reduction, by which the inherited preconceptions of conscious phenomena are pared away in order to reveal their essence, or primordial truth. It was a method that Heidegger would put to good use in his self-described “dismantling” of the traditional approaches of Western metaphysics, almost all of which he found inadequate to the task of genuine philosophical inquiry.

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In 1923 Heidegger was appointed associate professor of philosophy at the University of Marburg. Although he published very little in the early 1920s, his mesmerizing podium presence created for him a legendary reputation among young students of philosophy in Germany. In a later tribute, Hannah Arendt (1906–75), a former student of Heidegger and one of the most-important political philosophers of the 20th century, described Heidegger’s subterranean renown as being like a “rumor of a hidden king.”

According to Heidegger’s later account, his interest in philosophy was inspired by his reading in 1907 of Von der mannigfachen Bedeutung des Seienden nach Aristoteles (1862; On the Several Senses of Being in Aristotle), by the German philosopher Franz Brentano (1838–1917). Subsequent stages of Heidegger’s early philosophical development were illuminated for scholars in the late 20th century by the publication of transcripts of lectures he delivered in the 1920s. They show the influence of a number of thinkers and themes, including the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard’s concern with the irreducible uniqueness of the individual, which was important in Heidegger’s early existentialism; Aristotle’s conception of phronēsis, or practical wisdom, which helped Heidegger to define the peculiar “Being” of the human individual in terms of a set of worldly involvements and commitments; and the German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey’s notion of “historicity,” of being historically situated and determined, which became crucial in Heidegger’s view of time and history as essential facets of human Being.

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Being and Time

The publication of Heidegger’s masterpiece, Sein und Zeit (Being and Time), in 1927 generated a level of excitement that few other works of philosophy have matched. Despite its nearly impenetrable obscurity, the work earned Heidegger promotion to full professorship at Marburg and recognition as one the world’s leading philosophers. The extreme density of the text was due in part to Heidegger’s avoidance of traditional philosophical terminology in favor of neologisms derived from colloquial German, most notably Dasein (literally, “being-there”). Heidegger used that technique to further his goal of dismantling traditional philosophical theories and perspectives.

Being and Time began with a traditional ontological question, which Heidegger formulated as the Seinsfrage, or the “question of Being.” In an essay first published in 1963, “My Way to Phenomenology,” Heidegger put the Seinsfrage as follows: “If Being is predicated in manifold meanings, then what is its leading fundamental meaning? What does Being mean?” If, in other words, there are many kinds of Being, or many senses in which existence may be predicated of a thing, what is the most-fundamental kind of Being, the kind that may be predicated of all things? In order to address that question properly, Heidegger found it necessary to undertake a preliminary phenomenological investigation of the Being of the human individual, which he called Dasein. In that endeavour he ventured onto philosophical ground that was entirely untrodden.

Since at least the time of René Descartes (1596–1650), one of the basic problems of Western philosophy had been to establish a secure foundation for the individual human’s presumed knowledge of the world around him on the basis of phenomena or experiences about which he could be certain (see epistemology). That approach presupposed a conception of the individual as a mere thinking subject (or “thinking substance”) who is radically distinct from the world and therefore cognitively isolated from it. Heidegger stood that approach on its head. For Heidegger, the very Being of the individual involves engagement with the world. The fundamental character of Dasein is a condition of already “Being-in-the-world”—of already being caught up in, involved with, or committed to other individuals and things. Dasein’s practical involvements and commitments, therefore, are ontologically more basic than the thinking subject and all other Cartesian abstractions. Accordingly, Being and Time gives pride of place to ontological concepts such as “world,” “everydayness,” and “Being-with-others.”

Yet the framework of Being and Time is suffused by a sensibility—derived from secularized Protestantism—that stresses the paramountcy of original sin. Emotionally laden concepts such as “angst,” “guilt,” and “falling” suggest that worldliness and the human condition in general are essentially a curse. Heidegger, it seems, had implicitly adopted the critique of “mass society” set forth by 19th-century thinkers such as Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, a perspective that was well established within Germany’s largely illiberal professoriate in the early 20th century. That theme is illustrated in Being and Time’s treatment of “authenticity,” one of the central concepts of the work. Heidegger’s view seemed to be that the majority of human beings lead an existence that is inauthentic. Rather than facing up to their own finitude—represented above all by the inevitability of death—they seek distraction and escape in inauthentic modalities such as curiosity, ambiguity, and idle talk. Heidegger characterized such conformity in terms of the notion of the anonymous das Man—“the They.” Conversely, the possibility of authentic Being-in-the-world seemed to portend the emergence of a new spiritual aristocracy. Such individuals would be capable of heeding the “call of conscience” to fulfill their potential for Being-a-self.

Another distinguishing feature of Being and Time is its treatment of temporality (Zeitlichkeit). Heidegger believed that traditional Western ontology from Plato to Immanuel Kant had adopted a static and inadequate understanding of what it means to be human. For the most part, previous thinkers had conceived of the Being of humans in terms of the properties and modalities of “thinghood,” of that which is “present-at-hand.” In Being and Time, Heidegger conversely stressed Being-in-the-world as Existenz—a form of being that is “ecstatically,” rather than passively, oriented toward its own possibilities. From that standpoint one of the distinctive features of inauthentic Dasein is that it fails to actualize its Being. Its existential passivity becomes indistinguishable from the nonecstatic, inert being of things.

The problem of historicity, as discussed in Division II of Being and Time, is one of the most poorly understood sections of the work. Being and Time is usually interpreted as favoring the standpoint of an individual Dasein: social and historical concerns are intrinsically foreign to the basic approach of the work. Nevertheless, with the concept of historicity Heidegger indicated that historical questions and themes are legitimate topics of ontological inquiry. The concept of historicity suggests that Dasein always “temporalizes,” or acts in time, as part of a larger social and historical collectivity—as part of a people or Volk. As such, Dasein possesses a heritage on which it must act. Historicity thus means making a decision about how to actualize (or act upon) salient elements of a collective past. Heidegger stresses that Dasein is future-oriented: it responds to the past, in the context of the present, for the sake of the future. His treatment of historicity thus constitutes a polemical response to the traditional historicism of Leopold von Ranke, Johann Gustav Droysen, and Wilhelm Dilthey, which viewed human life as “historical” in a sense that was passive and devoid of intentionality (the quality of being about or directed toward something else). That kind of historicism failed to understand history as a project that humans consciously undertake in order to respond to their collective past for the sake of their future.