tuning and temperament

tuning and temperament, in music, the adjustment of one sound source, such as a voice or string, to produce a desired pitch in relation to a given pitch, and the modification of that tuning to lessen dissonance. The determination of pitch, the quality of sound that is described as ‘high” or “low,” is based upon the frequency of sound waves.

Two concepts fundamental to the theory of tuning are those of frequency ratio and of consonance and dissonance. A given musical pitch is determined by the frequency of vibration of the sound wave that produces it, as a′ = 440 cycles per second. An interval, or distance between two pitches, can thus be mathematically described as the ratio of the frequency of the first pitch to the frequency of the second. Various frequency ratios can be reduced to the same basic relationship; for example, 440:220 and 30:15 and 750:375 can all be reduced to the ratio 2:1.

When two tones are sounded together the subjective reaction may be anything from one of perfect consonance to one of extreme dissonance. Dissonance is produced by beats (interference between pulsations of sound waves), and it is found that maximum dissonance occurs when the rate of beats between the two tones is about 33 per second. Consonance results from the absence of beats, which occurs only when the ratio between the frequencies of the two tones is numerically simple. When the two tones are tuned to the same pitch, they are said to be in unison (ratio 1:1) and their consonance is absolute. Next in order of consonance comes the octave (2:1), the interval between c and c′ (encompassing eight notes of the piano keyboard); another highly consonant interval is the fifth (3:2, as from c to g). When a unison, octave, or fifth is slightly mistuned, the resulting combination is markedly dissonant and is judged “out of tune.” The slight mistunings that occur in systems of tempered tuning are necessary for reasons that will be discussed later in this article.

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The problems of tuning

So long as music consists of melody without harmony, consonance plays little part in the determination of successive pitches in a scale. Many primitive scales are sung, not played, and are variable in the exact pitches of their notes. When instruments are made, it is often necessary to determine precise pitches. The tendency is either to make the steps in the scale sound equal in size or to place them in simple arithmetic relationship to one another. The fundamental unit is the octave, which has the unique property that its two notes are felt in some indefinable way to be the same, though in pitch level they are recognizably different. For this reason, high and low voices naturally sing the same tune an octave apart. In nearly all musical cultures the octave is subdivided into a number of steps, each a simple fraction of an octave. In the diatonic, or seven-note scale, for example, which is the basis of Western music and is represented by the white notes on the piano keyboard, there are five steps of one-sixth of an octave and two of one-twelfth. In contrast to these uncomplicated fractions, the frequency ratios of these intervals are actually the irrational numbers: ⁶Square root of√2:1 and ¹²Square root of√2:1. As has been noted, consonance is related to simple frequency ratios such as 2:1. Consequently, the arithmetic subdivision of the octave can never produce perfectly consonant intervals. This unavoidable fact underlies many of the problems in the history of tuning. Insignificant when notes are heard melodically, it becomes highly important when notes of different pitch are heard simultaneously. The complex development of harmony has been the most striking peculiarity of Western music, and it has brought with it a host of tuning problems.

Apart from the octave, which presents no problem, there are really only three distinct intervals in the diatonic scale the consonance of which is important. These are the fifth (3:2, as C–G), the major third (5:4, as C–E), and the major sixth (5:3, as C–A). The other three consonant intervals are the fourth (4:3, as C–F), the minor sixth (8:5, as C–A♭), and the minor third (6:5, as C–E♭). The intervals of this second group are not truly distinct, for they can be derived from the first three by inversion—i.e., by transposing the lower note of the interval up an octave. Thus, inverting the fifth c–g yields the fourth g–c′. Inverting the major third c–e yields the minor sixth e–c′, and inverting the major sixth c–a yields the minor third a–c′. Because of the phenomenon of inversion, if the fifths in a scale are in tune, the fourths also will be in tune. For each of these six intervals the tuning expressed by the above simple frequency ratios sounds “right”; if modified slightly in either direction it sounds seriously out of tune. The same cannot be said of other intervals of the diatonic scale. The major and minor seventh (as c–b and d–c′) and the diminished fifth (as b–f ′), with their inversions, sound dissonant in any case; they have no one tuning that is clearly more acceptable than another. Hence the harmonic merits of any tuning system depend on the way fifths, major thirds, and major sixths are tuned. In the diatonic scale (indefinitely extended through several octaves) there are six perfect fifths (F–C, C–G, G–D, D–A, A–E, E–B), three major thirds (F–A, C–E, G–B), and four major sixths (F–D, C–A, G–E, D–B). It is impossible to tune the seven notes of the scale so that each of these 13 intervals is maximally consonant. This is the second inescapable obstacle to perfection in the tuning of the diatonic scale.

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