Chamber jazz and the Modern Jazz Quartet

Perhaps in reaction to the hot, more strident, more frenetic expressions of the postwar bands, or perhaps as a direct influence of the Thornhill-Evans approach, a cool strain entered the jazz scene in the late 1940s. Generated by Lester Young and furthered by such reed players as Lee Konitz and Gerry Mulligan, cool jazz, along with its structural corollary—contrapuntal, harmonically slimmed-down (often pianoless) chamber jazz—was suddenly in. Understatement and a more relaxed expression replaced extroversion and high-tension virtuosity. Examples abound, beginning with the Miles Davis Nonet (1948–50)—a direct offspring in instrumentation and musical intent of the Thornhill band. In such pieces as “Boplicity,” “Israel,” “Move,” and “Moondreams,” fine improvised solos by Davis, Konitz, and Mulligan were meaningfully integrated into the arrangers’ scores. Various octets, nonets, and other small ensembles soon followed suit, as did such West Coast-based quartets and quintets as those led by Mulligan, Chet Baker, Shelly Manne, Shorty Rogers, Jimmy Giuffre, and Chico Hamilton.

On a slightly different tack, the Modern Jazz Quartet (made up of John Lewis on piano; Milt Jackson on vibraphone; Percy Heath on bass; and Kenny Clarke, soon replaced by Connie Kay, on drums) was formed in 1953. After his years with Dizzy Gillespie, Lewis had been inspired further by his study of classical music, especially the work of Johann Sebastian Bach. Thus, Lewis brought a new kind of compositional (often contrapuntal) integration to the group’s repertory, particularly in fugal or quasi-fugal pieces, such as the early “Vendome” or the later “Three Windows” and the album-length work The Comedy. Above all, in these performances Lewis sought to bring collective improvisation back from earlier times; many striking examples can be heard on the recordings made by the Modern Jazz Quartet over a period of 20 years, especially in the frequent, remarkable same-register duets of Lewis and Jackson.

Jazz meets classical and the “third stream” begins

It was also in the 1950s that a greater rapprochement between jazz and classical music began to emerge. Like John Lewis, many other jazz musicians were studying much of the great classical literature, from Bach to Béla Bartók, to expand their musical horizons. Classical musicians, too, were listening more seriously to jazz and taking a professional interest in it. The ideological and technical barriers between jazz and classical music were beginning to break down. In that climate an apparently new concept or style, termed “third stream” by Gunther Schuller, arose. But third stream music was only apparently new, since European and American composers—including Claude Debussy, Igor Stravinsky, Charles Ives (using ragtime), Darius Milhaud, Maurice Ravel, Aaron Copland, John Alden Carpenter, Kurt Weill, and many others—had employed elements of jazz since early in the century. The difference in the 1950s and ’60s was that (1) the third stream amalgams began to include improvisation and (2) the traffic was now no longer on a one-way street from classical music toward jazz but was flowing in both directions. Spearheaded by Lewis and Schuller, the movement produced a wide variety of works and varying approaches to the process of cross-fertilization. Third stream began, particularly in the cultivated hands of pianist Ran Blake, to mate classical concepts and techniques with all manner of ethnic and vernacular musics and traditions as well as with jazz.

Though the term is now seldom used, the concept of third stream remains alive and well; Charlie Haden and Carla Bley’s Liberation Music Orchestra works and Randy Weston and Melba Liston’s African-influenced compositions are cases in point. Third stream music is also called by other names: crossover, fusion, or world music (although the first two of these terms are more often used in discussions of jazz-rock). So lively and penetrating has the stylistic intercourse been that it is nowadays often impossible to identify a piece as jazz, classical, or ethnic, proof that the third stream ideal of a true and complete fusion (not always technically possible in the 1960s) has at least partially been achieved.

Among the myriad contributions to third stream music over the years, Robert Graettinger’s works for various Kenton orchestras are crucial. Major atonal, polyphonically complex Graettinger compositions such as “City of Glass” (first performed in 1948) and his remarkable arrangements of standard popular songs reveal a talent of astonishing originality—showing little influence of Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, Bartók, or any major jazz figures—especially unusual for a man so young (he died at the age of 34).

Latin jazz: From “Spanish tinges” to Afro-Cuban beats and bossa nova

The syncopated beats of Latin American music—or what Jelly Roll Morton referred to as a “Spanish tinge”—influenced the early jazz of New Orleans, in particular the four-beat rhythm pattern of the Cuban habanera. During the swing era, many bands began featuring Afro-Cuban dance music, such as rumbas and congas, in their repertoire. By the 1940s Latin jazz had become a full-fledged genre of its own, a fusion of Afro-Cuban and Caribbean sounds that coalesced in New York City with the Machito and the Afro-Cubans orchestras, led by Cuban-born trumpeter Mario Bauzá and singer and percussionist Frank (“Machito”) Grillo. Bauzá’s tune “Tanga,” one of the Machito orchestra’s early hits, is often considered to be the first true example of Latin jazz.

Later in the decade saw combinations of big band and Afro-Cuban percussion in recordings by Stan Kenton, such as “Cuban Carnival” in 1947. At the same time Dizzy Gillespie collaborated with Cuban percussionist, dancer, and composer Chano Pozo; their synthesis of bebop and Afro-Cuban dance rhythms, as in the 1947 hit “Manteca,” was sometimes described as “Cubop.” Prominent musicians of this style in the 1950s, when the genre began to be called Latin jazz, include arranger Arturo (“Chico”) O’Farrill and pianists Frank Emilio Flynn and Ramón (“Bebo”) Valdés, as well as pianists George Shearing and Eddie Cano, percussionists Cal Tjader and Willie Bobo, and bassist Al McKibbon on the West Coast.

Latin jazz introduced or heavily featured such instruments as conga and bongo drums (played by such standout artists as Cándido Camero and Mongo Santamaría); maracas (the choice of Machito vocalist Grillo); and vibraphone and timbales (paired high-pitched drums), as in the Puerto Rican-flavored music of bandleader and percussionist Tito Puente. Cuban band Irakere, founded by pianist Jesús (“Chucho”) Valdés (son of Bebo Valdés) and arranger and conductor Armando de Sequeira Romeu, employed the full range of percussion instruments, from maracas, bongos, and congas to bata drums, guiro, claves, and cowbells.

The 1960s brought the Brazilian export bossa nova (“new trend”) to American jazz. A syncopated, sparsely accompanied sound that evolved from a union of samba (a Brazilian dance and music) and cool jazz, bossa nova was the innovation of composer Antônio Carlos Jobim and guitarist João Gilberto. In the mid-1960s bossa nova began to be associated in Brazil with social protest movements, as in the work of singer Nara Leão.

For many American listeners, however, the quintessential bossa nova track is saxophonist Stan Getz’s hit “The Girl from Ipanema” (1963), a collaboration with Gilberto and Jobim (and an unexpected vocal from Gilberto’s wife, actress Astrud Gilberto, who had never before sung professionally). The genre was further popularized in the late 1960s and ’70s with the success and “easy listening” style of pianist, composer, and arranger Sérgio Mendes and his ensemble Brasil ’66, after their being signed in Los Angeles by trumpeter and A&M executive Herb Alpert.

The mainstream enlarged: Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Charles Mingus, and others

In the meantime, the jazz mainstream continually broadened and expanded through the contributions of a wide range of talents from saxophonists Sonny Rollins, John Coltrane, Eric Dolphy, bassist-composer Charles Mingus, and composer-theorist George Russell to pianists Cecil Taylor, Bill Evans, and Dave Brubeck. Miles Davis and Coltrane exerted the greatest influence, Coltrane especially; he inadvertently bred thousands of clones who copied his sound and turned his every move into a cliché. Much more difficult to imitate and to absorb was the music of Dolphy, who, along with his unequaled mastery of alto saxophone and flute, was the first to conquer the bass clarinet as a jazz instrument. “Stormy Weather” (1960), his nearly 14-minute-long duet improvisation on alto with Mingus, must be counted as one of the greatest creative efforts in all of jazz.

The great wonder of jazz is its open-endedness, allowing truly talented musicians to explore new stylistic and conceptual avenues. Such was the case with Rollins, who—instead of merely releasing a string of unrelated musical ideas—was the first to develop thematic improvisation in such a way that themes or motifs were varied and revisited within a single performance. Equally important was the work of Lennie Tristano, who not only as early as 1945 was successfully exploring the possibilities of atonal improvisation but later through his students (saxophonists Lee Konitz and Warne Marsh and composer Bill Russo) created yet another school of jazz playing that emphasized contrapuntal and polyphonic linearity and lean and clear textures of, at times, almost classical austerity.

A remarkably gifted musician with a deep humility regarding jazz and his art, Coltrane (probably under the influence of Davis) abandoned his earlier fascination with the burgeoning harmonic language of bop—especially Monk’s unique tonal explorations—and began experimenting with modal jazz and single chords. This led to extended improvisations, often lasting as long as an hour. Although some observers regarded this type of playing as “practicing in public,” his recordings during this phase convey work that was always proficient and often brilliant, if relatively subdued and cautious.

Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers, the most renowned and respected of the “traveling conservatories,” held forth in the world’s jazz clubs and concert halls for more than three decades, hatching a long line of talented players ranging from Horace Silver, Kenny Dorham, and Lee Morgan (in the 1950s) to Freddie Hubbard, Keith Jarrett, Woody Shaw, and (in the 1980s) Wynton Marsalis.

Initially a loyal disciple of Gillespie, Davis by the late 1950s knew that he had neither the embouchure (the position of the lips, tongue, or teeth while playing an instrument) nor the ear for Gillespie’s pyrotechnics. Under the benign influence of Gil Evans, John Lewis, and others, he turned to an opulent, more lyrical style with which he and Evans were to make dramatic musical history in such recordings as Miles Ahead (1957) and Evans’s inspired recomposing of George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess (1958). Davis abandoned conventional major and minor harmonies for modal and pentatonic patterns (first fully aired in 1959 on the album Kind of Blue), a plunge into a meandering harmonic no-man’s-land that influenced much of jazz of the mid-20th century. Modal playing, with its long pedal points (repeated or sustained bass tones) and one-chord bass ostinatos (repetitions of a short melodic phrase), allowed by definition no harmonic progression or forward movement, and critics faulted the genre in a structural stasis that only the greatest improvisers could overcome. For Davis, however, this era produced some of his most soulful and emotionally powerful playing.

Mingus, together with Parker and Gillespie, was among the most gifted of all the postwar giants. A major composer in the full creative sense as well as a brilliant bass virtuoso and formidable bandleader, Mingus experimented with extended forms as early as the late 1940s (“Mingus Fingers” with Lionel Hampton). His oeuvre ranges from early simple blues and atonal free-form pieces to such poetically named jazz instrumentals as “Pithecanthropus Erectus” (1956), “Haitian Fight Song” (1957), “Fables of Faubus” (1959), and “Peggy’s Blue Skylight” (1961) to the monumental two-and-a-half-hour, posthumously premiered Epitaph. Accumulated between the early 1940s and 1962 and composed for 31 instruments, Epitaph is a gigantic summation of everything Mingus felt and heard in music, from the gentlest lyric ballads and earthy blues to the most complex and advanced Ivesian and Stravinskian orchestral excursions.