Monoculture

Monoculture, in agriculture, the practice of growing a single crop on a given acreage. While monoculture crops are sometimes rotated year to year, continuous monoculture, or mono-cropping, in which the same crop is grown year after year, has become one of the dominant paradigms in modern industrial agriculture.

Prior to the so-called Green Revolution, continuous monoculture was not generally successful, as most nonlegume crops exhaust the nitrogen in the soil, resulting in a reduction in yields over time, particularly in humid regions. The advent of low-cost nitrogen fertilizers, however, induced a reconsideration of the possible advantages of monoculture. Although the practice is largely contrary to the principles of ecology, farmers throughout the world now grow the major food, fiber, and forage crops in a monoculture. Indeed, many modern crop species have been shown to give their highest yields under this system.

Advantages

Monoculture has a number of advantages over traditional rotational or polycultural systems. The management of fields of just a single crop serves to simplify the business model for many farmers and agribusinesses. All the field preparation, inputs, crop maintenance, and harvesting can be the same across a monoculture, while polyculture farmers must consider the needs of many different species. Monocultures are seen to minimize costs and streamline production, allowing for profits to be maximized, though many require a significant initial investment in equipment and depend on significant inputs to maintain soil fertility and control pests. Monocultures can also offer greater flexibility in planning the system to meet year-to-year changes in the need for various crops. If necessary, part of the acreage can be shifted from one crop to another without upsetting the total farm-cropping plan.

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Agricultural technology: Monoculture

If a large farm has different kinds of soils throughout its acreage, a monoculture system may permit each crop to be grown on the soil best suited to it. Forage crops, for example, could be confined to fields of steep land to minimize erosion, whereas intertilled crops could be planted on the better soils with gentle slopes. Wet areas could be used continuously for crops not requiring early-spring field operations, while dry soils could be used for drought-resistant crops, such as sorghums or winter small grains. Similarly, just as monoculture plantings can accommodate soil type, the fertility level of the soil can be adjusted to fit one crop more precisely than it can be adjusted to fit all the crops in a rotational or polycultural system.

Finally, one of the most important economic advantages of monocultures is the potential for greater mechanization, which allows for the cultivation of larger tracts of land with less labor than polycultures allow. Depending on the crop, vast monoculture fields can be prepared and sown quickly with farm machines. Precise row widths can permit mechanized irrigation and the rapid and precise application of agrochemicals (i.e., fertilizers and pesticides) and can even facilitate automatic weeders. Tractors with specialized farm machinery are used to harvest an array of vegetables, including root crops such as potatoes, onions, and turnips, and leaf crops such as cabbage, kale, spinach, and lettuce. For certain crops with uniform heights, including grains such as wheat, rice, oats, rye, barley, and corn (maize) and seed crops such as sunflower, flax, sorghum, millet, soybean, and rapeseed, combine harvesters can efficiently cut and thresh large fields.

Disadvantages

While efficient, monoculture farms exact a heavy toll on the arable lands that underpin them. The continuous sowing of intensive crops results in the depletion of the soil’s chemical profile. Nearly the entire nitrogen need of nonlegume crops must be met by using purchased fertilizers or by using manure—an expense inherent in the practice. The heavy application of synthetic fertilizer generates soil and water pollution from runoff and contributes to algae blooms and eutrophication of nearby bodies of water. Soil erosion, which leads to the loss of fertile land and causes sedimentation in streams and rivers, is another significant issue. Frequently tilled and often left bare between seasons, monoculture fields are especially susceptible to topsoil erosion. Similarly, soil structure problems can become severe where intertilled crops are grown continuously. This problem is exacerbated by soil compaction from the use of heavy machinery, which makes the soil less capable of absorbing and retaining water and renders it less productive and more vulnerable to flooding.

In monoculture, the farmer is completely dependent on chemical insecticides, disease-resistant plant varieties, soil fumigation, and similar methods of controlling insects and diseases that are usually controlled by crop rotation. Given the lack of crop diversity, pests and diseases can quickly overwhelm a monoculture if the crop is not intensively managed. Even with such disease- and insect-control tools, herbicide-resistant weeds and pesticide-resistant insects and other pests pose a growing challenge to modern industrial farming. Moreover, vast monoculture farms do little to support biodiversity, including native bees and other pollinators. In North America, for example, the population decline of the monarch butterfly’s larval host plants has been associated with the expansion of the use of genetically modified herbicide-resistant crops grown in monocultures and has further placed the monarch’s long-term survival in jeopardy.

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Although agriculture in general has long been the major driver of deforestation, the fact that enormous monoculture farms have the most economic advantages has created a unique demand for vast tracts of cleared land. Small, traditional farms cannot always be consolidated into massive plots, so new land is cleared to form new farms. Since the late 20th century this phenomenon has been particularly devastating to significant swaths of Indonesia and Malaysia that have been completely cleared of old-growth forests for oil palm production.