- Key People:
- Howard S. Becker
- Related Topics:
- criminology
- deviance
- habitual offender
labeling theory
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What is labeling theory in sociology?
In sociology, labeling theory, which emerged from symbolic interactionism, explores how society's reaction to a behavior can define deviance and criminality. It posits that powerful individuals and institutions create crime by labeling certain behaviors as inappropriate. This can cause individuals to internalize these labels and view themselves accordingly.
Sociologist Howard Becker, a prominent labeling theorist, stated that "social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders". Labeling can vary based on individual attributes and can lead to future deviance. Reactions to deviance include collective rule-making, organizational processing, and interpersonal reactions.
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Who developed labeling theory and when?
Labeling theory comes from the sociological viewpoint of symbolic interactionism, based on the ideas of George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W.I. Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer.
Howard Becker, who published Outsiders in 1963, was one of the first and most well-known labeling theorists. Ross L. Matsueda and Karen Heimer contributed to the theory with differential social control in 1992, and John Braithwaite with reintegrative shaming.
Labeling theory gained popularity in the 1960s but faced criticism in the mid-1970s for allegedly ignoring the concept of deviance.
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How does labeling affect people's behavior?
Labeling theory, central to sociology and criminology, explores how societal labels influence individual behavior. It posits that powerful groups create deviance by labeling certain behaviors as inappropriate. This can lead individuals to internalize these labels, shaping their self-perception and actions.
Once labeled, individuals may be treated differently, leading them to accept the label and potentially engage in further deviant behavior. This concept is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy, where societal reactions to deviance can stigmatize individuals and separate them from society, reinforcing the labeled behavior.
However, labeling theory has faced criticisms for potentially overlooking the initial causes of deviance and for not always accurately predicting who will be labeled. Despite these criticisms, it remains a significant perspective in understanding the social construction of deviance and its impact on individuals.
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What is the difference between primary and secondary deviance?
In sociology, particularly within labeling theory, the concepts of primary and secondary deviance explain how societal reactions can influence individual behavior.
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Primary deviance refers to initial, often minor, acts of deviance that don't significantly impact an individual's social status or relationships. These acts are common and may even be seen as "normal" violations of rules or laws, like speeding.
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Secondary deviance, however, arises as a response to society's reaction and labeling of an individual as deviant. Unlike primary deviance, secondary deviance has major consequences for a person’s status and relationships and results from internalizing the deviant label.
The progression from primary to secondary deviance involves an individual committing a deviant act, society labeling the act as deviant, the individual internalizing this label, and, consequently, engaging in further deviance. Critics argue that labeling theory can overlook an individual's accountability for their actions.
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How can labeling lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy?
Labeling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy when an individual is labeled deviant, and they internalize and accept this label. This concept suggests that societal reactions to deviance can stigmatize individuals, causing them to view themselves in the same way society does.
For example, if a student is expected to perform poorly due to stereotypes and teachers lower their expectations, the student may internalize this belief, which can lead to reduced effort and achievement, thus confirming the initial expectation.
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How is labeling theory used to understand crime and punishment in society?
Labeling theory, rooted in symbolic interactionism, explains how societal reactions to crime can perpetuate it. Powerful groups label certain behaviors as deviant, leading to stigmatization of individuals. This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where labeled individuals internalize the criminal identity and become further estranged from law-abiding behavior.
The theory posits that negative reactions to deviance result in individuals being labeled as "criminal" or "deviant". This focus on societal reaction distinguishes it from other criminological perspectives. Some scholars, like Erikson, argue that deviance is functional, reinforcing social boundaries, but societal reactions can also stigmatize offenders, pushing them further into criminal behavior.
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labeling theory, in criminology, a theory stemming from a sociological perspective known as “symbolic interactionism,” a school of thought based on the ideas of George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W.I. Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, among others. The first as well as one of the most prominent labeling theorists was Howard Becker, who published his groundbreaking work Outsiders in 1963.
A question became popular with criminologists during the mid-1960s: What makes some acts and some people deviant or criminal? During this time, scholars tried to shift the focus of criminology toward the effects of individuals in power responding to behaviour in society in a negative way; they became known as “labeling theorists” or “social reaction theorists.”
In 1969 Blumer emphasized the way that meaning arises in social interaction through communication, using language and symbols. The focus of this perspective is the interaction between individuals in society, which is the basis for meanings within that society. These theorists suggested that powerful individuals and the state create crime by labeling some behaviours as inappropriate. The focus of these theorists is on the reactions of members in society to crime and deviance, a focus that separated them from other scholars of the time. These theorists shaped their argument around the notion that even though some criminological efforts to reduce crime are meant to help the offender (such as rehabilitation efforts), they may move offenders closer to lives of crime because of the label they assign the individuals engaging in the behaviour. As members in society begin to treat these individuals on the basis of their labels, the individuals begin to accept the labels themselves. In other words, an individual engages in a behaviour that is deemed by others as inappropriate, others label that person to be deviant, and eventually the individual internalizes and accepts this label. This notion of social reaction, reaction or response by others to the behaviour or individual, is central to labeling theory. Critical to this theory is the understanding that the negative reaction of others to a particular behaviour is what causes that behaviour to be labeled as “criminal” or “deviant.” Furthermore, it is the negative reaction of others to an individual engaged in a particular behaviour that causes that individual to be labeled as “criminal,” “deviant,” or “not normal.” According to the literature, several reactions to deviance have been identified, including collective rule making, organizational processing, and interpersonal reaction.
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Becker defined deviance as a social creation in which “social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labeling them as outsiders.” Becker grouped behaviour into four categories: falsely accused, conforming, pure deviant, and secret deviant. Falsely accused represents those individuals who have engaged in obedient behaviour but have been perceived as deviant; therefore, they would be falsely labeled as deviant. Conforming represents those individuals who have engaged in obedient behaviour that has been viewed as obedient behaviour (not been perceived as deviant). Pure deviant represents those individuals who have engaged in rule breaking or deviant behaviour that has been recognized as such; therefore, they would be labeled as deviant by society. Secret deviant represents those individuals who have engaged in rule breaking or deviant behaviour but have not been perceived as deviant by society; therefore, they have not been labeled as deviant.
According to sociologists like Emile Durkheim, George Herbert Mead, and Kai T. Erikson, deviance is functional to society and keeps stability by defining boundaries. In 1966 Erikson expanded labeling theory to include the functions of deviance, illustrating how societal reactions to deviance stigmatize the offender and separate him or her from the rest of society. The results of this stigmatization is a self-fulfilling prophecy in which the offenders come to view themselves in the same ways society does.
Key concepts: primary and secondary deviance
Primary deviance refers to initial acts of deviance by an individual that have only minor consequences for that individual’s status or relationships in society. The notion behind this concept is that the majority of people violate laws or commit deviant acts in their lifetime; however, these acts are not serious enough and do not result in the individual being classified as a criminal by society or by themselves, as it is viewed as “normal” to engage in these types of behaviours. Speeding would be a good example of an act that is technically criminal but does not result in labeling as such. Furthermore, many would view recreational marijuana use as another example.
Secondary deviance, however, is deviance that occurs as a response to society’s reaction and labeling of the individual engaging in the behaviour as deviant. This type of deviance, unlike primary deviance, has major implications for a person’s status and relationships in society and is a direct result of the internalization of the deviant label. This pathway from primary deviance to secondary deviance is illustrated as follows:
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primary deviance → others label act as deviant → actor internalizes deviant label → secondary deviance
Theoretical contributions
There are three major theoretical directions to labeling theory. They are Bruce Link’s modified labeling, John Braithwaite’s reintegrative shaming, and Ross L. Matsueda and Karen Heimer’s differential social control.