Kohl

Kohl, fine black powder traditionally used as eye makeup in various cultures since ancient times. It has been associated with protective and healing properties as well as cultural and religious significance. The word kohl derives from the Arabic word for this cosmetic, kuḥl. Ubiquitous in many parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, kohl is known by other names, including surma in Urdu and kajal in Hindi. It is regarded as the precursor to modern eyeliners, with major cosmetic brands such as Dior, Annabelle, and Sephora offering products such as kohl eyeliner pencils.

History

The use of kohl has been reported in many ancient civilizations. Experts have found traces of kohl in the region of Nubia and in ancient Egypt, where men and women lined their eyelids with this black substance, made primarily of galena (a lead sulfide mineral), the metallic element antimony, and some other ingredients such as almonds. It would often be mixed with fats or oil to make it easy to apply. Trade with Egypt likely brought kohl to the ancient region of Persia (now Iran), where it has been called sormeh, and the cosmetic eventually became known in ancient Greece and Rome. Evidence of kohl has been discovered in the Indus civilization of the Indian subcontinent in the form of sticks and as powder remnants in special containers. The use of kohl spread across the Middle East and among Arabic-speaking people, such as the Bedouin community, who adopted the practice of applying the cosmetic to their eyes. In fact, in 2025 UNESCO included Arabic kohl in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This cosmetic was also introduced to South Asia, likely through Muslim Arab traders during the Mughal rule of India.

During the early decades of the 20th century after World War I, kohl’s popularity rose in the Western world, with a growing interest in an Egyptian look and motifs in fashion in the United States and Europe. This is often linked to the discovery of the tomb of the ancient Egyptian king Tutankhamun in 1922, which created an interest in ancient Egyptian history and practices. Actor Rudolph Valentino’s film The Son of the Sheik (1926), set in Africa, further fueled popular interest in Egyptian iconography. The cosmetic’s use was promoted by well-known personalities including actress Theda Bara and entrepreneur Helena Rubinstein. Apart from kohl-rimmed eyes, 1920s Egyptian Revival fashion echoed antiquity through columnlike dresses with straight silhouettes, lavish gold embroidery, and hieroglyphic-inspired motifs. This fascination extended to bold, symbolic jewelry such as scarabs.

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Components

Kohl can be made with a variety of substances. Apart from galena, Egyptians used the metallic element antimony and the mineral malachite in their kohl. A number of samples studied in the 20th and 21st centuries also contained lead carbonate, brown ocher, black copper oxide, silicon- and manganese-based compounds, and organic substances including plant extracts. Analysis has shown that kohl used in Iran between the 9th and 7th centuries bce contained natural graphite and manganese oxide. This is one of the first known examples of graphite in ancient cosmetics for the eye. The Bedouin people have traditionally made kohl by using parts of the juniper (Juniperus) and Farsetia plants. Since local Farsetia plants flourish in July, they call the month shahr al-kohl, meaning the “month of kohl.” Natural elements such as date seeds, almond shells, and frankincense have also been used in the preparation of kohl, as has soot collected by burning oil.

Significance and uses

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One of the primary uses of kohl has been beautification. However, its significance across time and cultures has been broader. Applying kohl is said to help protect the eyes from the sun’s glare by absorbing UV rays, while ingredients such as the galena used in the preparation repel disease-causing insects. It also acts as a barrier against dirt, dust, and sand by trapping small particles. Certain preparations have also been shown to exhibit a weak antimicrobial effect against certain bacteria such as streptococci. Kohl made with antimony has traditionally been considered to improve vision.

In ancient Egypt, kohl held a religious purpose as people’s thickly lined eyes represented the magically restored eye of the Egyptian god Horus, who was believed to have the power to heal and protect. According to experts, it was commonly held that outlining their eyes ensured they were safe under Horus’s care. Among the Wodaabe people of the African Sahel region, men are known to wear kohl and other cosmetics to accentuate their looks, particularly during customs such as ritualistic dances, to make an impression on women. Many followers of Islam regard a version of kohl, called ithmid, as Sunnah (the way of the Prophet), or recommended, since Islam’s founder, the Prophet Muhammad, used ithmid for therapeutic purposes. In some cultures of Asia and Africa, kohl is thought to keep people, particularly children, safe from the “evil eye”—a harmful, envious look that can hurt someone, according to superstition. The cosmetic has been used during performances as well, notably by practitioners of the Indian classical dances bharatanatyam and kathakali.

Health and safety concerns

From the late 20th century onward, scientific studies identified significant health risks associated with some traditional kohl products, particularly those containing lead. Elevated blood lead levels have been documented among users, especially children, raising concerns about neurological and developmental harm. Public health authorities in several countries have issued warnings or bans on lead-containing kohl. Though composition varies widely between products, components including antimony have also been identified as potentially toxic. Many manufacturers are now focusing on creating kohl made only with safe, natural ingredients.

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