history of France

Introduction
Gaul
- Geographic-historical scope
- People
- Roman conquest
  - Gaul under the high empire (c. 50 bce–c. 250 ce)
  - Gaul under the late Roman Empire (c. 250–c. 400)
- The end of Roman Gaul (c. 400–c. 500)
Merovingian and Carolingian age
- Origins
  - Early Frankish period
  - Gaul and Germany at the end of the 5th century
- The Merovingians
  - Clovis and the unification of Gaul
    - Frankish expansion
    - Conversion of Clovis
  - The sons of Clovis
    - Conquest of Burgundy
    - Conquest of southern Germany
  - The grandsons of Clovis
    - Shrinking of the frontiers and peripheral areas
    - Parceling of the kingdom
  - The failure of reunification (613–714)
    - Chlotar II and Dagobert I
    - The hegemony of Neustria
    - Austrasian hegemony and the rise of the Pippinids
- The Carolingians
  - Charles Martel and Pippin III
    - Charles Martel
    - Pippin III
  - Charlemagne
    - The conquests
    - The restoration of the empire
  - Louis I
  - The partitioning of the Carolingian empire
    - The Treaty of Verdun
    - The kingdoms created at Verdun
- The Frankish world
  - Society
    - Germans and Gallo-Romans
    - Social classes
    - Diffusion of political power
  - Institutions
    - Kingship
    - The central government
    - Local institutions
    - The development of institutions in the Carolingian age
  - Economic life
    - Trade
    - Frankish fiscal law
  - The church
    - Institutions
    - Monasticism
    - Education
    - Religious discipline and piety
    - Church influence on society and legislation
  - Merovingian literature and arts
  - Carolingian literature and arts
The emergence of France
- French society in the early Middle Ages
- Political history of France (c. 850–1180)
  - Principalities north of the Loire
  - Principalities of the south
  - The monarchy
  - Economy, society, and culture in the Middle Ages (c. 900–1300)
    - Economic expansion
    - Urban prosperity
    - Rural society
  - Religious and cultural life
    - The age of cathedrals and Scholasticism
    - Culture and learning
France, 1180 to c. 1490
- France from 1180 to 1328
  - Kings and the royal government
    - Philip Augustus
    - Louis VIII
    - Louis IX
    - Later Capetians
  - Foreign relations
- Period of the Hundred Years’ War
  - Kings and the war, 1328–1429
    - Philip VI
    - John the Good
    - Charles V
    - Charles VI
    - Charles VII
  - Recovery and reunification, 1429–83
    - Governmental reforms
    - Military reforms
    - Regrowth of the French monarchy
  - Economy, society, and culture in the 14th and 15th centuries
    - Economic distress
    - Cities
    - The church
    - Culture and art
France, 1490–1715
- France in the 16th century
  - Military and financial organization
  - Growth of a professional bureaucracy
  - Age of the Reformation
  - The Wars of Religion
  - Political ideology
- France in the early 17th century
  - Henry IV
  - Louis XIII
  - The Fronde
- The age of Louis XIV
  - The development of central government
  - Louis’s religious policy
  - Absolutism of Louis
  - Foreign affairs
- French culture in the 17th century
France, 1715–89
- Social and political heritage
  - Social order of the ancien régime
  - Monarchy and church
  - Commitment to modernization
- Continuity and change
  - Agricultural patterns
  - Industrial production
  - Commerce
  - Cities
- Cultural transformation
  - The Enlightenment
  - Influence of Montesquieu and Rousseau
- Political response
  - Historical debate
  - Foreign policy and financial crisis
  - Domestic policy and reform efforts
  - Tax reform
  - Parlements
  - King and parlements
- Causes of the French Revolution
The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789–1815
- The destruction of the ancien régime
  - The convergence of revolutions, 1789
    - The juridical revolution
    - Parisian revolt
    - Peasant insurgencies
    - The abolition of feudalism
  - The new regime
    - Restructuring France
    - Sale of national lands
  - Seeds of discord
    - Religious tensions
    - Political tensions
- The First French Republic
  - The second revolution
  - A republic in crisis
  - Girondins and Montagnards
  - The Reign of Terror
  - The Jacobin dictatorship
  - The Army of the Republic
  - The Thermidorian Reaction
  - The Directory
    - Sister republics
    - Alienation and coups
- The Napoleonic era
  - The Consulate
  - Loss of political freedom
  - Society in Napoleonic France
    - Religious policy
    - Napoleonic nobility
    - The civil code
  - Campaigns and conquests, 1797–1807
  - The Grand Empire
  - The Continental System
  - Conscription
- Napoleon and the Revolution
France, 1815–1940
- The restoration and constitutional monarchy
  - Constitutionalism and reaction, 1815–30
    - Louis XVIII, 1815–24
    - Charles X, 1824–30
  - The revolution of 1830
  - The July Monarchy
- The Second Republic and Second Empire
  - The revolution of 1848
  - The Second Republic, 1848–52
  - The Second Empire, 1852–70
    - The authoritarian years
    - The liberal years
    - The Franco-German War
- The Third Republic
  - The Commune of Paris
  - The formative years (1871–1905)
    - Attempts at a restoration
    - The constitution of the Third Republic
    - Republican factions
    - Opportunist control
    - The Dreyfus Affair
    - Foreign policy
  - Prewar years
  - World War I
  - Interwar years
    - German reparations
    - Financial crisis
    - Collective security
    - Internal conflict on the left
    - The Great Depression and political crises
    - German aggressions
  - Society and culture under the Third Republic
    - Economy
    - Cultural and scientific attainments
France since 1940
- Wartime France
  - The Vichy government
  - The Resistance
  - Liberation
- The Fourth Republic
  - Constitution of the Fourth Republic
  - Political and social changes
  - Colonial independence movements
- The Fifth Republic
- France after de Gaulle
- France under a Socialist presidency
  - Mitterrand’s first term
  - Mitterrand’s second term
- France under conservative presidencies
  - The Chirac administration
  - The Sarkozy administration
- The euro-zone crisis and the Socialist resurgence
  - The 2012 presidential campaign
  - The Hollande administration
  - The Macron presidency

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

Political map of France showing regional boundaries, major cities, and neighboring countries including Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom across the English Channel. The map highlights regions such as Normandy, Brittany, Aquitaine, and Provence, and includes an inset locator map of France within Europe and a detail of Corsica in the lower left.

Historical map of Roman Gaul, covering present-day France and parts of neighboring regions, marked with imperial frontiers, provincial boundaries, major Roman roads, provincial capitals, major maritime outlets, legionary and naval bases, and early veteran colonies. The map highlights key cities, tribal regions, and transport routes within the Roman provinces.

Historical map showing the division of the Frankish kingdom among the sons of Clovis after his death in 511. The map uses different colors to indicate territories ruled by Theodoric I, Clodomir, Childebert I, and Chlotar I, as well as undetermined areas, within the broader outline of the Frankish kingdom at Clovis's accession. Major cities and neighboring kingdoms such as the Visigothic Kingdom and Ostrogothic Kingdom are also labeled.

Historical map of Western Europe showing the Frankish domains during the time of Charles Martel, with approximate boundaries. The map uses color shading to distinguish regions of Neustria, Austrasia, Burgundy, and dependent territories, covering areas that now include parts of France, Germany, the Low Countries, and northern Italy, and labels major neighboring kingdoms and regions.

Wood engraving showing Charles Martel raising a battle axe while on horseback during the Battle of Tours, surrounded by armored soldiers and horses in combat.

Chromolithograph of Pippin III wearing a gold tunic with scale-like armor, a blue cape, a crown, and holding a sword, standing against a plain background.

Painting by Albrecht Durer of Charlemagne in ornate coronation robes and crown, holding a sword and orb, with gold embroidery and regal symbols behind him.

history of France: References & Edit History

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Article Contributors

Primary Contributors

T.N. Bisson
Jeremy David Popkin
Professor of History, University of Kentucky, Lexington.
Gabriel Fournier
John Frederick Drinkwater
Patrice Louis-René Higonnet
Bernard S. Bachrach
J.H. Shennan
Eugen Weber
Isser Woloch
Gordon Wright
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.

Other Encyclopedia Britannica Contributors

Article History

Type	Description	Contributor	Date
	Add new Web site: GlobalSecurity.org - France - History.	Emily Rodriguez	May 02, 2025
	Add new Web site: Nature - European Journal of Human Genetics - The genetic history of France.	Gloria Lotha	Oct 17, 2024
	Add new Web site: Nature - European Journal of Human Genetics - The genetic history of France.	Gloria Lotha	Oct 17, 2024
	Add new Web site: The Ohio State University - Understanding the history of France and its impact on world history.	Gloria Lotha	Jul 12, 2024
	Cross-reference corrected.	J.E. Luebering	Apr 19, 2024
	Add new Web site: Heritage History - "The Story of Modern France".	Gloria Lotha	Mar 01, 2024
	Add new Web site: BBC News - France profile - Timeline.	Gloria Lotha	Nov 24, 2023
	New article added.	Michael Ray	Oct 16, 2023